2025 EBS 수능특강 영어독해연습 (전지문) - 지문정리

 

 

 

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2025 수능특강 영어독해연습 (전지문) - 한줄해석 (좌지문 우해석)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

지문 정리

[1강 - Exercise 1번: 월드 와이드 웹에서의 검색 용이성]

Until at least the early 2000s, the World Wide Web was a rapidly evolving space but one with a chronic problem ─ it was an ever-expanding repository of information with no efficient search function. In 1994, the editors of Postmodern Culture, one of the first academic journals to start publishing on the web, were concerned enough about this new medium to warn their readers that venturing onto the web, which had grown from an estimated 100 sites in June to over 600 sites by December 1993, may result in "a kind of informational vertigo." While this warning may now strike readers as extremely funny, it is worth noting that for much of the 1990s, finding anything on the web was a problem. It would take nearly a decade for this problem to resolve. As search engines were refined and became more functional, however, the drive to "game the system" also increased. And more individuals and organizations started to produce content for the web that had one sole purpose: to rank high in any search. So-called discoverability came to dictate why a lot of content was being produced.

 

[1강 - Exercise 2번: 글로 기록하는 것에 대한 소크라테스의 생각]

A particularly revealing excerpt illustrating the importance of written documents is provided by a remark made by Socrates. Socrates was an important philosopher in Ancient Greece, who was not at all interested in keeping written records of his thoughts. In a dialogue with a young student (Phaedrus) Socrates recounted how the god Thoth of Egypt offered the king of Egypt all types of inventions, including dice, checkers, numbers, geometry, astronomy and writing. The god and the king discussed the merits and drawbacks of the various gifts and were in general agreement until they reached the gift of writing. Whereas the god stressed the advantage of being able to remember information, the king objected: 'If men learn this, it will implant forgetfulness in their souls; they will cease to exercise memory because they will rely on that which is written, calling things to remembrance no longer from within themselves, but by means of external marks.' From the remainder of the dialogue it is clear that Socrates wholeheartedly agreed with the king of Egypt and thought that the availability of books made students lazy and discouraged them from properly studying.

 

[1강 - Exercise 3번: 개인의 도덕성 평가 준거로서의 의도]

The history of ethics is largely a history of the development of two central lines of thought: one that emphasizes our fundamental duties to others, and the other that strives to justify decisions based on the effects that our actions have on others. Immanuel Kant, William David Ross, Seyla Benhabib, and others argued that the most important question to pose is whether a person understood and was attempting to carry out a moral obligation or duty. If so, the outcome of one's action has no bearing on whether he or she acted ethically. Their duty-based, or deontological, approach is focused almost exclusively on intent and is the only way, they argued, to acknowledge the existence of universal moral obligations and to assess one's moral character. What makes a lie immoral, Kant said, is not the consequence of the lie ─ whether it prevents embarrassment or results in serious harm. A deliberately told lie is wrong because of what it is, not what it does: by its nature, a lie is an assault on our human dignity. We are failing morally if our intent is to deceive, and whatever results from that deception is immaterial.

 

[1강 - Exercise 4번: 의사소통 동반자로서의 알고리즘의 특성]

The communicative relevance of algorithms is actually related to their independence from understanding. We are facing a way to process data (and to manage information) that is different from human information processing and understanding. My assumption is that this difference is not a liability but instead is the very root of the success of these technologies. Just as human beings first became able to fly when they abandoned the idea of building machines that flap their wings like birds, digital information processing managed to achieve the results that we see today after abandoning the ambition to reproduce in digital form the processes of the human mind. Now that they no longer try to resemble our consciousness, algorithms have become more and more able to act as competent communication partners, responding appropriately to our requests and providing information neither constructed nor reconstructible by a human mind.

 

[1강 - Exercise 5번: 인구의 안정과 문화 변화]

Sociocultural evolution provides some reason to suspect that a stable population, which sounds so good to most people, would deprive human culture of its greatest single source of dynamism ― population growth itself. The origins of agriculture, agricultural intensification, political evolution, industrialization ― all appear indebted to population growth. However, population growth's role in a few major cultural transformations of the past does not mean that it is essential for all culture change; it scarcely seems likely that people would stop seeking better cures for disease, for example, simply because population had stabilized. Furthermore, the absence of population growth does not necessarily mean the absence of population pressure. Indeed, Thomas Robert Malthus believed that populations, when they do stabilize, tend to do so at a level too high to be easily supported by existing resources, creating constant pressure for culture change. If he was right, then even a population stable numerically is inherently unstable culturally.

 

[1강 - Exercise 6번: 강의 복원]

Restoring a river in order to recover a species, whether salmon in the Columbia River Basin, or any other species in diverse ecologies around the world, requires drawing from expertise across many fields: from engineering to biology to ecology to geomorphology. River restoration is about more than just "fixing" a broken stream; it also involves everything that connects to that stream and the organisms that rely on it ─ in this case, the endangered salmonids as they move throughout their complex life cycles. When people in the field refer to the work of "restoration" they are usually casting a broad net. They may be including riverside and streamside habitat: the wetlands and forests and estuaries that salmon pass through at different times in their (non-ocean) lives, as well as the stream morphology: the arrangement of rocks and debris that forces the stream to move in a particular way. Restoration, therefore, also covers the geology of the river itself, along with the flow of water: the element that is most often in greatest need of being restored. As one restorationist said, their job is to "re-complexify a simplified river."

 

[1강 - Exercise 7번: 식품 매개성 질병과 그에 따른 비용]

Eating offers pleasure at the risk of future pain. This obvious truth holds today more than ever with our increasing ability to detect and identify food-borne illnesses. Well-publicized outbreaks of cholera and Salmonella have made people aware that food-borne disease makes a lot of us sick every year: an estimated 76 million illnesses annually in the United States alone, with over 300,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths, imposing an estimated cost in the tens of billions of dollars. For example, Jean C. Buzby and Tanya Roberts estimated that for six bacterial pathogens, the costs of human illness are estimated to be US$9.3-12.9 billion annually. Of these costs, US$2.9-6.7 billion are attributed to food-borne bacteria. One estimate suggests that 1 out of 3 consumers in industrialized nations suffers from known and newly recognized food-borne diseases each year. And if we look globally, we might also note that "hundreds of millions of people around the world fall sick as a result of consuming contaminated food and water.... Children under five still suffer an estimated 1.5 billion annual episodes of diarrhea, which result in more than three million premature deaths."

 

[1강 - Exercise 8번: 기업의 제조 사업체 이전]

The need to contain cost is a major driver of globalization. Firms are encouraged to expand beyond their home jurisdictions in order to capitalize on low wage rates in other countries. A significant number of North American and European companies, many of them well-known manufacturers of branded consumer products, have elected to move their manufacturing operations to China in order to take advantage of that country's low wage structure. Clothing and shoe manufacturing firms have been producing in China for many years but so also have companies in other sectors such as consumer electronics, food and industrial products. While China's wage rates are considerably lower than those in western industrialized economies, they have been rising significantly in recent years. This has prompted some companies to seek out even lower wage jurisdictions for their manufacturing operations, and interestingly has also encouraged American firms to move production back to the USA.

 

[1강 - Exercise 9번: 입사 지원자 평가에 활용되는 네트워크화된 정보]

Our reliance on networked information to assess job candidates will only increase as algorithmic tools become more sophisticated and less expensive. Today human resources rely on Big Data ─ the collection and analysis of massive databases of information ─ to identify job prospects. Analytics firms crunch data to search for and assess talent in particular fields. Remarkable Hire scores a candidate's talents by looking at how others rate his or her online contributions. Talent Bin and Gild create lists of potential hires based on online data. Big-name companies like Facebook, Wal-Mart, and Amazon use these technologies to find and recruit job candidates. Will algorithms identify targeted individuals as top picks for employment if they have withdrawn from online life? Will they discount online abuse so that victims can be evaluated on their merits? One can only guess the answers to these questions, but my bet is that victims will not stack up well next to those who have not suffered online abuse.

 

[1강 - Exercise 10번: 피타고라스 학파 사람들의 여성과 남성에 대한 관점]

Although it was rare, some ancient philosophers took exception to the view that women were complete subordinates. Around 532 BCE in Croton, a beautiful and prosperous seaside city located in the toe of southern Italy, Pythagoras founded a school of philosophy devoted to mathematical and theological insights. Women were allowed to study and teach in the school. Pythagoras and his followers postulated that women were men's intellectual equals and that the two were capable of friendship. Nevertheless, from what remains of their writings today, it seems they didn't want to shake things up too much. Men and women studied separately, and but for the few women in Pythagorean schools, the rest were to carry on with their traditional social roles. What's more, the friendship that brought the sexes together required women's obedience. A harmonious asymmetry is how the Pythagoreans liked to think of it, and in the case of marriage, as one ancient historian put it, Pythagoreans held that wives were "not to oppose their husbands at all," and that wives "would achieve a victory if they gave in to their husbands."

 

[1강 - Exercise 11번: 경력의 변화하는 정의]

Definitions of what a career is are changing. Historically, a career was defined by upward mobility and advancement in a steeply graded hierarchy, achieving greater responsibility and influence, with the vast majority of employees remaining with their organizations for life. Career success was measured by objective criteria such as pay, status and power. Today a career is more likely to be defined as a lifelong series of work experiences, with job movements being upward, sideways and in some cases downward ― termed protean careers. Career success is increasingly measured by intrinsic criteria such as satisfaction, engagement, meaning, learning and growth rather than external criteria such as income and organizational level. More people today want to trade money for meaning. Sheryl Sandberg views careers today more like 'jungle gyms', structures allowing movement from one rung to another, rather than as a ladder.

 

[1강 - Exercise 12번: 수요 주도적인 관점으로의 변화]

In the past it was always a safe assumption that the expanding marketplace would consume everything that was produced. As a consequence, the primary goal of a company was to produce in the most efficient way and distribute products to the market. However, the old view that a business makes products and then sells them within the supply chain is no longer so relevant or valid, as businesses have come to realize that they can lead a horse to water, but they cannot make it drink. In the future, companies cannot sell products anymore: people will buy from you. This means that the old concept of being supply-driven (company pushes products to the market) is being replaced by a pull-concept (the market pulls goods from you) where a company understands what their customers need and works backward, deciding how it can satisfy that demand by developing new capabilities. Thinking about business from the outside-in perspective (in other words being demand-driven) is mainly a customer-centric view, where organizations no longer have a sales focus but a buying (customer) focus.

 

[2강 - Exercise 1번: 인간과 개미의 유사성]

They often say people look like ants when seen from a great height. I lean forward a little in my seat and look out of the window. Our flight to Peru has yet to reach cruising altitude. Below us, I can just about make out roads, houses and fields, cows in a pasture, here and there a village, and a city in the far distance. It's not a bad comparison, I think. Everything I can see from up here is something I have encountered in my research on ants: fixed roads, spectacular buildings, agriculture, livestock farming. I let myself sink back into my seat. The parallels don't stop there, if you think about it. Ants live in cities, just like people. In times of peace, they go about their work, sharing the labor fairly. Each has a job, from the wet nurses in the nursery to the architects, construction workers, and housekeepers in the nest, to the hunters and gatherers, who ensure that everyone is fed. But peace does not last forever, even among ants. Neighbors fight over the borders to their territory and wage bitter wars on one another.

 

[2강 - Exercise 2번: 유아의 반복되는 음절 인식]

Infants' abilities to track patterns were demonstrated in a series of landmark studies that first appeared in 1996. The studies focused on how infants identified artificial spoken words embedded in much larger strings of spoken syllables. When infants hear a string of syllables, such as po-ta-to, repeatedly occurring, do they start to see that string as somehow special and cohering as a unit, namely potato? They do so easily. In fact, infants under six months can learn new artificial words in under two minutes. (They are artificial to make sure infants don't already have experience with them as words.) In the studies, infants listen to much longer strings of syllables in which certain artificial words, such as bidaku, repeatedly occur amid other nonrepeating random strings of syllables. No other cues to repeating three-syllable words are present such as intonation, special stress, or pauses. Based solely on repeated co-occurrences, infants reliably came to expect such sequences to occur again in the future in comparison to other completely novel three-syllable sequences for which they showed no such expectations.

 

[2강 - Exercise 3번: 인공위성 관측 데이터의 용도]

Working with the Department of Commerce, NASA satellites have provided orbital observations that have enabled the understanding of climate change. Satellites track weather patterns and measure the effectiveness of farming methods and innovations in agriculture, which have helped to feed millions more than we could have dreamed possible before the space age. The collection and distribution of fresh water, rapidly becoming one of this century's most valuable resources, is monitored globally. Aquaculture data ─ tracking stocks of fish and modeling how to best utilize and maintain a healthy supply of this important food source ─ is generated from space-based observations. The identification of mineral resources is increasingly performed via satellite imagery. Satellites are also a part of the global traffic control system for aircraft. Even ground transport ─ trucks, trains, and the like ─ is monitored from orbit. In short, much of what drives modern civilization is affected, and in most cases improved, by the use of data obtained from satellites.

 

[2강 - Exercise 4번: wondering과 아이의 경이감]

Wondering goes beyond merely being curious. Building on prior knowledge and some sense of major causal and spatial patterns, we entertain rough sketches of possibilities or interpretations and strive to learn which is more accurate and how it is filled out. To marvel at something is also linked to wondering. While marvels and wonders often refer to awe-evoking things, when children engage in wonder, they do much more than simply sit in a state of passive reverential awe. Their awe is better described by the naturalist Rachel Carson ─ a joyous marveling at how an insight has revealed an enormous new expanse of possible patterns to explore. It is not the dumbstruck, potentially fear-laden sense of awe experienced by adults. Almost a century ago, in an isolated region of Papua-New Guinea, the anthropologist Margaret Mead observed that, when children were asked to explain why a canoe tied to a tree drifted away overnight, they offered explanations of how the rocking boat gradually loosened up the knot. In contrast, many adults invoked spirits, moral crimes, and supernatural interventions. When we see young children's wonder as filled with supernatural agency, we impose the encultured interpretations of adults.

 

[2강 - Exercise 5번: Foster 부부의 팔찌 장식물]

One couple created a very personal way to commemorate their participation in space missions. In the early 1960s, Toni Foster and her husband, Robert L. "Bob" Foster, an engineer who worked for McDonnell Aviation, the contractor that built NASA's Mercury and Gemini space capsules, had a tradition. Whenever Bob completed a project, he gave Toni a new charm for her charm bracelet. These space-themed tokens celebrated the end of significant professional projects and offered a gift to make up for being away so much during intense periods of work. The charms also recognized how she contributed to his career by taking care of their children and home, allowing him to spend time away as chief engineer on Project Mercury and operations manager on Project Gemini. Although the bracelet is now missing its clasp and is too short to be worn, the charms hanging from the delicate gold links tell an important story about the people who made human spaceflight happen.

 

[2강 - Exercise 6번: 불안의 유전적 성향의 발현]

Your anxiety most likely has genetic roots. For example, many people that I treat at my center tend to have a family history of phobias, panic attack struggles, or obsessive compulsive disorder. The genetic connection can be close and obvious, like a parent, or less direct, like a second aunt or a great grandfather. To put it simply, this means that those with anxious wiring tend to be more likely to suffer from potential anxiety issues than those without. However, this inclination for developing an anxiety issue by no means suggests that it's a foregone conclusion. It just means the table has been set, should you take certain actions to sit down and eat! This is similar in some way to someone with a genetic predisposition toward alcohol abuse. Even though the pull might be strong, you only become an alcoholic once you abuse alcohol.

 

[2강 - Exercise 7번: 단어가 별개의 음소로 구성되어 있는지 여부]

Although we think of speech as consisting of separate phonemes, it is easy to demonstrate that it doesn't. Think of the common activity in which a Muppet (or person) models sounding out a simple word. Letters appear on the screen and the Muppet says the sounds associated with them, one at a time, "b"... "a"... "t"..., gradually decreasing the pauses between them. Sometimes the letters are displayed far apart on the screen and gradually brought closer together as a visual cue. The sounds do not fuse into "bat" no matter how rapidly in succession they are spoken because it does not consist of three separate segments. A discontinuity always occurs at the very end when the rapidly but separately pronounced phonemes are followed by the word pronounced as a whole. How to get from one to the other, the Muppet does not say. The activity is useful because the child learns about letters and their sounds. It encourages the fiction that words consist of separate segments even as it demonstrates that they do not.

 

[2강 - Exercise 8번: 물과 에너지를 이용한 상품의 가공]

Unsurprisingly, processed materials are more valuable than raw ones. Lumber is worth more than timber, and flour is worth more than wheat. The modern analogies are that gasoline is worth more than crude oil and chemicals are worth more than natural gas. Industrious humans used energy to upgrade their natural resources into higher-value commodities they could export elsewhere. And, because of the higher value density of the finished products, it was smart to do so. Flour was more valuable per pound and easier to transport than wheat. The same could be said for the water that goes into it. It made more sense to transport a pound of flour than the 1,000 pounds of water required to grow it. Water and energy made it possible to process a wide range of goods, creating value along the way.

 

[2강 - Exercise 9번: 객관적, 주관적 성공과 진정성과의 관계]

Authenticity and objective success are independent of each other. The fact that a person is pursuing a career path that is an authentic expression of his or her most deeply held values and strongest interests says nothing about how successful the person will be in attaining career outcomes that others can observe. Subjective success (success as perceived by the individual) could potentially be high even with low authenticity. While this might seem counterintuitive, consider a person who had created an organization that was very successful, creating a huge fortune for the person. The person might subjectively see herself as being highly successful in this venture. But what if that person's true passion was for art and what if her original dream was to spend her career as a painter? Her authentic self would be a painter, but her actual self had become an executive, whose life had little room for art. This situation would be an example of an inauthentic career characterized by high objective and subjective success.

 

[2강 - Exercise 10번: 초객체의 특징]

The philosopher Timothy Morton calls global warming a 'hyperobject': a thing that surrounds us, envelops and entangles us, but that is literally too big to see in its entirety. Mostly, we perceive hyperobjects through their influence on other things ─ a melting ice sheet, a dying sea, the buffeting of a transatlantic flight. Hyperobjects happen everywhere at once, but we can only experience them in the local environment. We may perceive hyperobjects as personal because they affect us directly, or imagine them as the products of scientific theory; in fact, they stand outside both our perception and our measurement. They exist without us. Because they are so close and yet so hard to see, they defy our ability to describe them rationally, and to master or overcome them in any traditional sense. Climate change is a hyperobject, but so is nuclear radiation, evolution, and the internet.

 

[2강 - Exercise 11번: 가족 내의 영향력 변화]

While media are a significant cause of change in the social order, rarely are they the only one, or largest one. Thus, while the emergence of television likely contributed to changing notions of childhood, several other sociocultural factors may have strengthened this process. One particularly relevant factor has been a shifting balance of power in the family. Unlike the traditional "top-down" family communication style of the 1950s, today's parents negotiate with their children about what they may and must do, and both parties have a say in the outcome. Parents feel it is important to involve their children in family decisions so that they can learn to make choices and develop their identities. The parental motto has changed from "behave yourself' to "be yourself." Parents are more indulgent, feel guilty more often, and want the best for their children. They want to be "cool" parents, more their children's friends than authority figures.

 

[2강 - Exercise 12번: 컴퓨터 프로그램이 규정하는 세상]

As we live in a world made of software, programmers are the architects. The decisions they make guide our behavior. When they make something newly easy to do, we do a lot more of it. If they make it hard or impossible to do something, we do less of it. When coders made the first blogging tools in the late '90s and early '00s, it produced an explosion of self-expression; when it's suddenly easy to publish things, millions more people do it. And when programmers invented "file-sharing" tools around the same time, a shudder ran through the entertainment industries, as they watched their lock hold on distribution suddenly evaporate. In fact, they fought back by hiring their own programmers to invent "digital rights management" software, putting it in music and film releases, making those wares trickier for everyday folks to copy and hand out to their friends; they tried to create artificial scarcity. If wealthy interests don't like what some code is doing, they'll pay to create software that fights in the opposite direction. Code giveth, and code taketh away.

 

[3강 - Exercise 1번: 사회적 이동성에서 천성의 중요성]

The bitter irony of the nature-nurture wars of the twentieth century was that a world where nurture was everything would be horribly more cruel than one where nature allowed people to escape their disadvantages through their own talents. How peculiarly nasty to write people off because they were born in a slum, or fostered by indifferent parents. The society depicted in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World is usually mistaken these days for one of fatalistic genetic determinism. In fact it is the very opposite, a place where early nurture for the elite produces unfair advantages. Fortunately, we know from the work of the economist Gregory Clark that elites regress inexorably to the mean over time. Despite sending their children to elite pre-schools, the richest of the rich in a city like New York can do little to make up for their children's genetic mediocrity; and despite getting little opportunity, brilliant kids from the slums can make it big. Nature is the friend of social mobility.

 

[3강 - Exercise 2번: 컴퓨터 기술의 빠른 진화와 예술 사학자의 선호 주제]

The expanding nature of digital technology meant new forms were constantly surfacing and rapidly diversifying. As Dieter Daniels wrote regarding the growing complexity of current digital media, it is "impossible to take in the whole picture." No technology has ever unfolded its potential as swiftly as computers. In contrast to traditional tools, which retained their form and function for hundreds of years, the computer has changed dramatically in a short space of time. There was, as pioneering artist Mark Wilson suggests, a "bewildering variety of computational techniques" available to the artist. Throughout the history of computer art, it seems that artists have often struggled with the morphology and tempo of digitalization. For the theorist and artist, it was difficult to follow the rapidly evolving nature of the technology and the sudden succession and redundancy of forms. Equally, the historian was faced with the difficulty of mapping these rapidly transforming and ever-expanding digital forms. This is perhaps why art historians have traditionally preferred subjects that evolved at a manageable pace.

 

[3강 - Exercise 3번: 의사 결정에 수반되는 비용의 최소화]

One might say that a language predisposes us to think certain things, but perhaps its main effect is in causing us not to think certain things. It is well established that we fail to notice much of what goes on around us. Research on human decision making shows that while we routinely disregard a portion of available information, this in fact makes good sense. Part of the logic of decision making is to minimize the costs involved. It is the same from small things, like choosing which brand of cereal to buy, to big things like finding a life partner. Once you have locked on to a decision-making problem, your next step is to find ways to narrow the search for an appropriate solution and lock off, or stop the search, by making the decision that yields the best balance: desired benefit for lowest cost. And you should make the decision quickly in order to get on with making the next incoming decision.

 

[3강 - Exercise 4번: 추가 영양분 공급원으로서의 초기 인간 남성]

Few accounts of early human evolution depict males being fathers or sons, and yet every single one of our male ancestors was both of those things. That's not to say that early human fathers put as much effort into hands-on child care as early human mothers did. But once the size of our ancestors' brains began to expand, it's likely that adult males began to live with mothers and children, and groups worked together to collect and prepare food. It seems to us that mothers would have needed help from adult males to get enough food for themselves and their larger-brained children. Chimp mothers are stretched to capacity finding enough food to keep their larger-brained babies alive. We reckon that australopithecine mothers could have managed if they had worked together and got help from their older children. But it's hard to see how mothers could find enough food to supply the calories needed to support the growth of even larger-brained youngsters while at the same time supporting their own larger brain. Males were the only possible source of the extra nourishment.

 

[3강 - Exercise 5번: 개인의 감염 이력과 미래의 질병 위험과의 관계]

Health researchers are increasingly examining how people move around the world and interact. They do this through surveys, mobile phone data and satellite imagery. Soon it will be possible to link this data with other information ─ from genome sequences to environmental analysis ─ to study infections across a range of scales. Rather than focus only on the biological features of a disease, or its impact on a particular population, we will be able to simultaneously analyse the infection, its evolution and its environment, as well as the behaviour of its human patients. This will allow health agencies to design disease control strategies specifically for different populations and areas, and it will be particularly important in situations where a person's history of infection can influence their future risk of disease. Dengue fever is a good example: if you've previously been exposed to one strain of dengue, it can make your second infection more severe. That's why a 2016 study coordinated by the World Health Organization recommended that dengue vaccination campaigns should account for the history of infection within a population.

 

[3강 - Exercise 6번: 우주나 다른 행성에서 무기한으로 사는 것의 어려움]

It was an amazing feat to get to the moon, stay there for a few hours, and return to Earth. The spacecraft for the eight-day journey was equipped with enough food, oxygen, and other necessities for the astronauts to survive. It's quite another undertaking for a colony of people to live indefinitely in space by growing crops and recycling water and wastes. One person consumes roughly three times his or her body weight in food, four times that weight in oxygen, and eight times that weight in water, and generates 130 pounds of feces and 880 pounds of carbon dioxide in a single year. Clearly, the prospect of carrying enough food to eat, water to drink, and air to breathe for a colony of people is out of the realm of possibility, not to mention the difficulty of carrying away the waste. Even a single glass of water would require massive amounts of energy to lift into space. A colony living indefinitely in space or on another planet would need to grow its own food and cycle its water and wastes. Clockwork switches over to complexity.

 

[3강 - Exercise 7번: 상대적 손해 여부에 따른 불공정함에 대한 처벌]

If punishment were about promoting cooperation, we should simply punish unfair people. How much the other person's unfairness caused them to gain on us personally shouldn't impact our decision. However, as two psychologists, Nichola Raihani and Katherine McAuliffe, have found, this is not the case. Their experiment involved a two-player game where one player could steal money from the other. The victim always suffered the same loss. However, the relative outcome varied. Sometimes the thief still ended up with less cash than their victim, sometimes they had the same as the victim, and sometimes they had more. The study found that the victim's decision to punish the thief was strongly influenced by whether the thief ended up better off than the victim. People punished when they were made worse off by another person breaking a rule. They did not simply punish because the other broke a moral rule. Their punishment was not about increasing cooperation. It was about harming someone who had unfairly advanced ahead of them.

 

[3강 - Exercise 8번: 집단 내 결속력 강화에 따른 타 집단에 대한 적대감 상승]

We recognise that groups divide as well as unite, and the intensity of our bonds within them may proportionately discourage relationships with non-members. This presents us with a distinctly utopian problem. Utopia is an idealised group characterised by enhanced sociability. But every "in" group implies exclusion, or an "out-group". The attractiveness of the group may well be proportionate to its delineation of and antagonism towards its enemies. Germans, for instance, have been described as achieving a "grand utopia of belonging" in their united enmity to the Jews under Hitler. So every utopia is a potential dystopia. Affection for and loyalty to some may be defined by hostility towards others: neighbouring countries, rival football clubs, other races, religions, and nations. The last are particularly guilty here. The most ambitious and universalistic theories of sociability demand a moderation of the more primitive forms of national loyalty by cosmopolitanism to emphasise our common essential humanity. But often they fail, and national enmity prevails instead.

 

[3강 - Exercise 9번: 동물들이 처한 환경에 따른 의사소통 소리의 다양성]

Small mammals and insects live near one another, often in dense vegetation. Their hearing range extends into what humans call the ultrasonic because these high sounds reveal useful information about the close-at-hand environment. Social and breeding signals of these animals are therefore also ultrasonic. To human ears, for example, mice and rats seem almost entirely silent, but these animals have rich vocal repertoires including play sounds, calls from pups to mothers, alarms, and breeding songs. Such high-frequency sounds travel very poorly in air, and so these sounds offer rodents good close-at-hand communication without revealing their locations. For animals that interact on larger scales, like humans and birds, lower frequencies work better for long-distance communication. Their ears ─ and thus breeding songs and calls ─ are tuned to lower frequencies. The diversity of sonic expression therefore reflects the varied ecologies of each species.

 

[3강 - Exercise 10번: 행위 주체 과잉 탐지 편향]

Human infants learn to distinguish between the living and the nonliving using clues about how things move and the noises they make (dogs move differently from cars and make different kinds of noises), and how they interact with other objects. But the neurological machinery that draws these distinctions is far from perfect, so it is not always easy to distinguish between what today we call the natural and supernatural realms. Our brains are always on the lookout for agents, and it is so easy to make mistakes when we hear whispers behind us in the night. Why do iron filings creep toward magnets? Why do rivers in flood seem so angry? Dreams and hallucinations encourage us to believe in the possibility of many types of purposeful beings. So does language, because grammatical forms tell us that actions require actors. In English, grammar forces you to say that the wind blows, the sun shines, the world spins, the pandemic spreads. Our minds have a bias toward overdetection of agency because that is usually a less dangerous error than the alternative. Mistaking a log for a crocodile might cause some merriment, but mistaking a crocodile for a log could prove fatal.

 

[3강 - Exercise 11번: 일관된 국제적 동물 복지 규정의 필요성]

One area in which veterinarians are professionally involved is the now almost worldwide trade in animals. They are often called upon to oversee such operations, sometimes required by law to do so. But Simon Coghlan shows how things can go radically wrong, not least of all when slaughter is unregulated at the place of destination, where few legal restrictions prevail. He reviews the controversy that was aroused by the footage of Australian cattle being abused in Indonesian abattoirs and illustrates one of the central problems with the live-export trade, namely, the lack of international agreement on the treatment of animals. While animals may be treated tolerably well in the farms they are raised on in one country, there is no guarantee that they will be treated well either in transit to or upon arrival in another country. At the very least, veterinarians should be at the forefront of calling for consistent animal welfare regulations internationally. It is often their voice, either individually or collectively, that is missing from such debates.

 

[3강 - Exercise 12번: 교훈 전달에 있어서 스토리텔링의 중요성]

Storytelling is among the proudest of Indian traditions, and from ancient times, it has been associated with imparting wisdom and worldly knowledge. When you read the Panchatantra tales as a child, it was impossible to miss the moral underlying each story. And the Mahabharata, the grandest, the most complex and multi-layered of epics, wasn't merely a masterpiece of storytelling: it was, and remains, a discourse on life and living. The beauty of stories is that they teach without ever appearing to do so. Most of our early world view and our moral compass have been shaped through the stories we heard in the laps of our mothers and grandmothers without us ever realizing it. We looked forward to bedtime story sessions because the tales enchanted and entertained us, and through them we learned without ever feeling the burden of formal learning. Preaching rarely works with children, and I suspect it works no better with adults. In general, we are resistant to being handed down wisdom in black-and-white terms.

 

[4강 - Exercise 1번: 도덕적 미결정성과 상대성]

Ethical theories that appeal to experience instead of to intuition, religion or reason, sometimes treat indeterminacy simply as a problem of difficulty in measurement. They may call attention to differences in what is right or good under different psychological, historical and individual conditions. In that sense, morality is relative. A certain action is considered wrong if done by someone who possesses typical cognitive abilities, but not if done by someone who lacks the ability to make fine distinctions. You cannot expect the same rules of private property concerning land in a primitive hunting society and a small individual peasant society. You cannot impose the obligation to save a drowning man by swimming out for him upon one who cannot swim or who is desperately ill. Such individualization and particularization hardly constitute indeterminacy. For they call attention to the factors which make single and decisive answers correct; in short, they remove rather than enshrine indeterminacy.

 

[4강 - Exercise 2번: 창의력의 발현]

One of the things that often block our creativity is our own inhibitions. Psychologists believe we have a built-in censor that limits the information we are prepared to accept from the preconscious in order to protect ourselves from being overwhelmed by the information we contain in our brain. Filters appropriate to our situation ensure appropriate recollection. If we are in a leisure situation, leisure links are used and work recollections are unwelcome. If we are at work, we do the opposite. This could well be the reason why an idea will come to us out of context. We might have been racking our brain to consider how to extend a particular story, but as soon as we settle into a different activity, such as socialising with friends or watching TV, the idea comes to us. It seems that during the incubation phase of the idea, because we have adjusted the parameters of the censor, an association that we otherwise would not have considered will be delivered to our subconscious, and our conscious mind will suddenly recognise it as appropriate for the problem we were dealing with before.

 

[4강 - Exercise 3번: 불확실하고 잘못된 이론을 통한 과학의 진보]

The success of science is better accounted for if we consider that the goal of science is deeper understanding of nature instead of certainty. Science thus succeeds when it produces scientific understanding. We can then easily see that science has continually advanced throughout its history because scientific understanding has increased, even if the explanations and predictions produced are uncertain. It can also occur even if the theories and models used to make those explanations and predictions are uncertain. In fact, such advancement can occur even if the theories and models involved are false! Copernicus's theory improved upon Ptolemy's theory even though it included the idea that Earth's orbit around the sun is circular. Kepler's theory improved upon Copernicus's theory by holding that Earth's orbit is elliptical rather than circular. And Newton's theory of gravitation led him to make a further improvement by recognizing that Earth's orbit is not exactly elliptical. Each of these theories constituted a scientific advance from their predecessors. However, they were all false theories. Despite the fact that the theories were false ─and thus clearly uncertain ─ they led to deeper understanding of Earth's orbit.

 

[4강 - Exercise 4번: 조직의 표현 규칙과 리더의 감정 표현의 자율성]

Adopting a simplistic "be positive and smile" approach may be even less feasible for leaders than for front-line service workers. Like front-line workers, leaders often experience frustrating work events, and sometimes these events may have a stronger influence on them than the organizational display rule to be positive. Perhaps of even greater concern, a simplistic display rule to be always positive may deprive mid- and lower-level leaders of the discretion they need to adopt the best emotional tone for the situation. Unlike many service workers, who often must display the same emotion (such as smiling or showing sympathy) over and over again in a fairly repetitive fashion, leaders have to display a much wider range of emotions and use considerable judgment as to which emotions best suit the situation. Consequently, organizational display rules for leaders must give them the freedom to display a wide range of emotions, and the autonomy to use considerable judgment about which emotions to display at any given time.

 

[4강 - Exercise 5번: 매개 커뮤니케이션의 기능]

The philosopher Michel de Montaigne is an early representative of a different view of media. He considered writing to be a unique way of exploring and recording "traits of my character and my humours," which he famously did best while working alone in his writing tower. In fact, he actively used the opportunities of pen and paper to continuously revise and make additions to his essays, in a manner reminiscent of what goes on in the recording studio. The ability of writers to express their inner lives, and to imagine the experiences of others, has always been broadly celebrated, including the way novels are able to place various personalities and worldviews into dialogue with one another. The growth in distribution of books gave people fresh insight into the motivations and sentiments of others. The ability to provide increasingly detailed access to people's lives has since been considered a defining trait of electronic media, dramatically demonstrated by witness reports from warzones. These points can trigger a critical awareness of the power of mediated communication but might also inspire a nuanced appreciation of its rewards.

 

[4강 - Exercise 6번: 무지의 사회학]

If there is a sociology of knowledge, then there should also be a sociology of ignorance. Such a sociology might begin with the question, Who does not know What? It is worth remembering that 'we are all ignorant, just about different things', as the American humorist Mark Twain remarked. For example, the spread of the Coronavirus was predicted by epidemiologists who had discovered the danger of the transfer of different diseases from wild animals to humans. On the other hand, governments either did not know or did not want to know about this prediction, so they were caught unprepared. Many disasters have occurred because those who knew could not act while those who acted did not know. The destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001 offers a dramatic example of failure in communication. Agents in the security services already suspected certain individuals of planning a terrorist attack, but their warnings were lost among the many messages sent to upper levels in Washington in a striking example of 'information overload'. As the national security adviser Condoleezza Rice admitted later, 'There was a lot of chatter in the system.'

 

[4강 - Exercise 7번: 생각의 진정성]

The demands of the self usually conform so closely to societal norms that we feel no tension in acting upon our desires. The self emerges most clearly at times when our passions clash with social protocol. Their very inconvenience makes them feel "true." Over the last 150 years, however, psychologists and neuroscientists have warned us against attributing too much authenticity to our thoughts. Our brains are always engaged in rationalization: framing raw demands from our subconscious as well-grounded, logical requests. Psychologist Bruce Hood elaborates, "Even if you deliberate over an idea, turning it over in your conscious mind, you are simply delaying the final decision that has, to all intents and purposes, already been made." Later, "having been presented with a decision, we then make sense of it as if it were our own." The overwhelming number of truth-hiding mechanisms in our brains has convinced Hood that the self is an "illusion." Whether or not this is the best framing, we should certainly abandon the idea that the self is a "real me" cordoned off from any social influence.

 

[4강 - Exercise 8번: 기능으로부터 목적의 잘못된 추정]

If you look at castles built during the Crusades, you will find holes in the walls and may, at first, believe that these were made as places to shoot arrows from. They were not. They are legacies of a kind of construction no longer performed and thus hard for the modern mind to imagine. When the castle was built, there was no free-standing scaffolding, so wood logs were driven between the stones until the next layer and another platform could be added; it wasn't until the castle was finished and all the wooden scaffolding was removed that they realized there was no way, at the time, to repair the holes. Any explanation that the holes were constructed in order to shoot arrows from ─ despite how well suited they appear for the task, after the fact ─ is incorrect, and the lesson applies wholesale to castles as well as to all of biology. Many erroneous assumptions are likewise made when one looks at any modern mammalian brain and infers, hundreds of millions of years after its creation, purpose from function.

 

[4강 - Exercise 9번: 인터넷 정보 보안 의식의 부재]

In the 1990s, as the Internet saw its global adoption, it became clear that not everything connected to the Internet should be available to everyone. An organization's server could include internal information that it never intended to be available from the outside, yet often it was easy to find for anyone who cared to look for it. Another challenge was that the technology was built with the idea that we trust people to use it appropriately. The implied idea that no one will intentionally try to sabotage or break things was a remnant of the early Internet days, and one that meant many servers and systems were open for anyone to use. We just trusted people not to take advantage. One of the first demonstrations of the lack of IT security was the first recorded Internet worm in 1988. The Morris worm provided clear evidence that the technology was not at all secure just because we tend to trust the users on the system.

 

[4강 - Exercise 10번: 정원 가꾸기와 유사한 가치 확인과 갈등 해결]

Identifying values and resolving conflicts is a little like gardening. To be honest, I hate gardening, but I have enough gardeners in my circle of friends and family to have a sense of what goes on with them. Gardeners work with what they've got ─ the soil, grown trees, the shape of the plot of land ─ and make it into something satisfying. For some people, this will mean a garden that produces fruit; for others, it will mean a garden that looks nice; for others, it might mean a garden that can't be ruined by cavorting dogs. Plants come into conflict: trees with dense foliage create shade in which other plants can't grow, some trees (like the black walnut) are toxic to lots of other plants, and some plants are invasive and take over everything. The gardener has to navigate these conflicts: find the best spots for the prized plants, remove the weeds, and sometimes make peace with imperfection.

 

[4강 - Exercise 11번: 발전의 진정한 의미]

The notion that "development" is synonymous with "economic growth" has been subjected to severe criticism. By far the most significant is that of Amartya Sen, who has argued that "commodities" ─ the production of which is a major part of economic growth ─ are only of value to us in terms of what they allow us actually to do. Sen advocates that we should think about development rather in terms of people's capability to achieve those things that they have reason to value: "The focus here is on the freedom that a person actually has to do this or be that ─ things that he or she may value doing or being." It is inherent in this approach that freedoms, both the "negative" freedoms ─ being free from unjustified coercion, and freedoms of speech and expression, of association, and of movement ─ and the "positive" freedoms, which have to do with what makes it possible for people actually to enjoy their freedom (including the material [commodity] means for this), are of fundamental importance. According to this view, therefore, development "can be seen as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy."

 

[4강 - Exercise 12번: 관찰자가 형성해 가는 시각 세계]

There had been hints for centuries that observers might have some role to play in reality. In fact, in his Opticks, Isaac Newton insisted that brightness and hue are not inherent, but that each observer actually creates all the colors of the visual realm within his mind. "The rays to speak properly are not coloured," he wrote. Other scientists eventually showed that Newton was right. By the early twentieth century, physicists had established that light consists of the alternating pulses of magnetic and electrical fields. Since neither magnetism nor electricity are visible to humans, to our eyes an emerald green forest canopy must be inherently blank. The fact that we see it as emerald green means that somewhere in the vast magical neurocircuitry of our brains, a "green" sensation arises, and then, by some equally marvelous mental occurrence, we "place" it out in front of our noses, in what we regard as the "external world."

 

[5강 - Exercise 1번: 음모론자와의 논쟁]

It can often feel frustrating and pointless to argue with a conspiracist. Highlighting logical contradictions or a lack of reliable evidence, even showing them evidence that counters their claim, can seem like a waste of time when you don't make progress in changing a person's mind. But that does not mean you shouldn't try. What you should not do is accuse another person of ignorance or stupidity, however tempting that might be in the heat of an argument. Instead, examine where they have obtained their evidence; ask them what the chances are that the conspiracy could have been kept a secret by so many people. The Moon landing hoax is a good example of a conspiracy theory that is difficult to justify on these grounds, as it requires tens of thousands of people working for NASA and the many other industries that supported the Apollo missions to have been 'in on it' and to have remained silent for half a century. Just as importantly, try to understand their underlying concerns and why it is that they believe, or want to believe, what they do.

 

[5강 - Exercise 2번: 행동의 이해와 예측을 수반하는 스포츠]

Many sports involve interpreting and anticipating the behavior of other athletes. In basketball, for example, an athlete not only must execute actions in light of her immediate goals and overall game strategy, she also must coordinate her actions with her teammates' complementary actions and opponents' disruptive, incompatible actions. Coordinating her actions with teammates and opponents requires interpreting their behavior and anticipating what they will do next. For instance, she must recognize when an opponent is driving to the basket, anticipate the positions her teammates will be in when the opponent is driving to the basket, and decide whether to pursue the driving opponent or let a better-positioned teammate step in to defend against the drive. This dynamic interaction happens very quickly, and superior athletes are more highly skilled at coordinating their behavior with teammates and opponents' behavior.

 

[5강 - Exercise 3번: 정치에 대한 정의]

We all have an intuitive sense of what "politics" means, but may find it harder to define the term precisely. Modern political science offers a clear and helpful concept: politics is collective choice that is binding on a community. To see this, draw a contrast between politics as the domain of collective choice and economics as the domain of individual choice. Economic choices ― for example, what to consume or produce, or what kind of employment to engage in ― are individual and voluntary. Such choices will be constrained ─ we may not be able to buy everything we want, or choose the exact job we want ― but they are not coerced. We make these choices, and no one else forces us to do so. Furthermore, these choices affect only the person who makes them and other, similarly consenting individuals who freely enter into voluntary, contractual relationships. By contrast, political choices are collective and binding. They may be a consequence of individual decisions (in a dictatorship, the choice of a single leader; in a democracy, the choices of a majority of citizens), but everyone in the community is obliged to accept these decisions whether or not they support them.

 

[5강 - Exercise 4번: 경험이 질병 증상에 대한 해석과 반응에 미치는 영향]

It is not perhaps surprising that prior experience affects the interpretation of and response to symptoms. Having a history of particular symptoms or experience of illness in others (i.e. vicarious experience) generates assumptions about the meaning and implications of some symptoms. Also, symptoms considered to be rare in either one's own experience, or in that of others, are more likely to be interpreted as serious than a previously experienced or widespread symptom. Believing symptoms to be 'just a bug that's going round' can mean that people sometimes ignore potentially dangerous 'warning signals'. A knowledge of which bodily signs are associated with particular behaviour or illnesses (e.g. sweats and exercise, sweats and flu) will enable interpretation of the symptom and attachment of a meaning to it. These reserves of knowledge are known as 'disease prototypes'. Relevant to the ongoing (at the time of writing) coronavirus outbreak is the earlier finding that people tend to perceive novel viral threats as higher in risk compared to more common threats such as influenza.

 

[5강 - Exercise 5~6번: 스포츠를 통한 삶의 성찰]

Following the dramatic arc of sporting contests and athletic careers allows us to witness the efforts of athletes to live good human lives ─ to pursue excellence, victory, fame, and fortune and also to deal with failure and loss. And while the drama of a play or novel is the scripted drama of the author's creation, the drama of sport is that of real people who must live with the consequences of their decisions. This is one reason why I reject the idea that sports should be sharply separated from "real life." When we watch sports, we are not watching characters. The actor who plays Romeo doesn't die at the end of the performance; he gets to leave the character's plight behind when he goes home. By contrast, injuries that players suffer in the pursuit of their goals are not rehearsed, and the quarterback of the losing team does not get to divest himself of the game's result. If these features of sports do not necessarily make sports an encouragement to ethical reflection that is superior to drama or literature, I think they at least show that sports are not inferior in this regard. At a minimum, I want to insist that if it makes sense to regard the plays of Shakespeare as legitimate sources for our own thinking about the nature of the good life, then there is no reason to think that sports are less capable of igniting such reflective capacities.

 

[5강 - Exercise 7번: 연구 참가자의 참가 중단에 대비한 계획]

Participants who volunteer for a study must be allowed to discontinue participation. If research participants feel stressed, tired, or otherwise unable to continue the study to completion, there should be no stated threat of penalty for withdrawing. The informed consent should make it clear what the results of terminating will be, even if the probability of withdrawal is low. One approach to this problem is to provide participants with prorated compensation based on the percentage of the study they completed. If participants are being paid $25 for participating in a focus group, and the focus group begins to explore issues that make the participant uneasy, a withdrawing participant should be paid for the part of the focus group that she or he completed. For college students who participate for course credit, such partial credit could be harder to construct ─ but you should have a plan, especially if you think participants might not finish the study. As with many parts of the research process, it is wise to prepare for low-probability events.

 

[5강 - Exercise 8번: 번식에 있어서 암컷이 치르는 희생]

Reproduction is a fundamental problem for all organisms. Animal species exhibit a diverse range of strategies to produce offspring, which often require large inputs of energy and are associated with major risks to their survival. Among mammals, females undergo more direct costs of reproduction insofar as they carry (literally) the burden of embryonic and fetal growth and nourishment of the young through lactation. Thus the health of a female mammal directly affects reproductive outcome, both in terms of her fertility and the survival or death of her offspring. Human females experience these costs as a function of their mammalian heritage, but the variety of environments they inhabit generates substantial differences in the reproductive risks that women face. Their abilities to reduce these risks are important determinants of individual and population differences in maternal and child health and survival.

 

[5강 - Exercise 9번: 굴러 내려오는 공을 관찰한 갈릴레오의 실험]

Galileo studied terrestrial gravitation not by asking about the nature of gravity, but by observing how objects behave when gravity acts on them. In particular, he did a series of experiments on balls rolling down inclined planes (the purpose of the incline being, in his words, to "dilute" gravity enough so that he could measure the time it took for the ball to roll with the primitive clocks available to him). By meticulously measuring the time it took the ball to travel various distances, he was able to find out how the speed of the ball changed in transit. His bottom line: Terrestrial gravity causes all objects to accelerate the same amount, regardless of their mass, and the rate of that acceleration is constant. These simple observations allowed Galileo and his contemporaries to understand (and predict) things like the fall of a stone or the arc of a cannonball. They are the basic facts that tell you everything you need to know about how unsupported objects behave at the surface of our planet.

 

[5강 - Exercise 10번: 위험 상황을 피하는 감각]

The rule about not being a hero isn't about not taking action. This rule is about being a bigger person and having the good sense to walk away from a potential confrontation ─ even if there is a part of you that doesn't want to. Trust me. I know how hard this can be. I was running early one morning in Baltimore, Maryland, toward the inner harbor. I noticed two guys on the sidewalk ahead of me. I was in my jogging clothes, and they were fully dressed walking around at 6 a.m., which is a bit unusual. As I ran toward them, I saw them look at each other and then spread apart, creating a situation in which I'd have to run between the two of them. If I had placed myself between them, who knows what they might have done? I decided to play it safe: run across the street, making sure to give them eye contact and let them know I'm paying attention. Maybe it was nothing. Maybe they had six friends around the corner and they were going to rob me. My main point is that I didn't let my ego get in the way; I didn't feel a need to prove myself by running between them and risk a potentially dangerous situation.

 

[5강 - Exercise 11~12번: 미디어의 공공 소유에 대한 상반된 의견]

Ownership of the media gives control over the nature of the information distributed. Proponents of public ownership of the media argue that because information is a public good ─ that is, once it has been supplied to some consumers it is hard to keep it away from others who have not paid for it ─ private owners tend to provide less information than would be socially desirable. They also argue that with private ownership the media industry runs the risk of representing the views of only a narrow group in society, and state ownership of the media is necessary to expose the public to desirable cultural or educational themes or values. Opponents of public ownership argue that government control of the media can be used to manipulate people and distort the information supplied in the incumbent government's favor. Moreover, experience shows that government-owned enterprises are less likely to be responsive to consumer demand. Finally, government-owned media are not subject to competition, thus giving rise to the danger of both poor-quality production and inefficiencies. A recent article on the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) claims that government ownership makes it harder than it would otherwise be for other media companies to grow. The article claims that the large amounts of tax revenue that are given to the BBC give it an advantage relative to private companies. It also contends that as a private company, the BBC would be more dynamic, and therefore better able to compete with global media firms.

 

[6강 - Exercise 1번: 동물 착취의 불의에 도전할 필요]

As consumers we have the right to know what we are paying for, and as active participants in the exploitation of animals we also have a moral obligation to confront the truth about the choices we make. The reality is that we all have our part to play in overcoming injustice, especially one so ubiquitous, systemic and universally perpetuated as the oppression of non-human animals. With the continuing industrialisation of animal farming and the increasing number of animals being farmed, coupled with the ever-growing existential threat of climate change and future pandemics, it has never been more important to address our current food system and challenge ourselves as individuals and consumers. By doing this, we can then challenge the normalisation of our dominance over non-human animals and the natural world that in turn negatively impacts every life on this planet, ours included. Fundamentally, that's an attempt to hold up a mirror to the absurdity of what we are doing and reveal the solution that is right there in front of us.

 

[6강 - Exercise 2번: 클래식 음악과 음악 교육에서의 창의성]

The terms "creativity" and "musician" were once inseparable. In the classical world, based on the conservatory approach, the creativity part has seemed to have all but disappeared. Yes, we are all creative beasts in some form, but in classical music and music education in general, creativity typically equates with being able to recreate a piece of music slightly differently from the way someone else does. For the most part, the instructions on how to play the piece of music are written directly onto the page, and the only part up for debate is how the instructions are to be "interpreted" by the musician playing that piece. Even then, there are generally accepted ways to interpret a piece of music that are considered conventional and stylistically appropriate. In every other genre of music outside of classical (and jazz to some degree), creativity and creating something new is part of being a musician and is never separated from that, nor does it rely solely on reproducing other people's music to exist.

 

[6강 - Exercise 3번: 나이와 관련한 정상적인 것과 노안]

What is normal? Dictionary definitions include usual or typical. Normal doesn't mean there's never a cause for concern, or that there's nothing that can be done to make things better. Normal age-related changes can affect what you do day-to-day and how you feel, both physically and emotionally. We're lucky to live at a time when so many adaptive devices and technologies are available. When you turn 40 or so, you develop blurred vision while doing close-up work, reading, using the computer, or sewing, for example. This is called presbyopia. It is "normal," and hopefully you will respond by getting glasses to correct your vision. Without glasses, you wouldn't be able to live a normal life, and your new visual impairment would become a disability. We don't usually think of glasses as assistive devices, yet they are, just like canes or hearing aids. They can make an enormous difference in the quality of our lives as we age; however, this will happen only if we recognize how they improve our function and ability to engage with the world when using them.

 

[6강 - Exercise 4번: 옛날의 야생 꿀벌 집 찾기]

Bee hunting, also known as bee lining, used to be practiced widely in Europe, North America, the Middle East, and Africa. Indeed, it may be a pursuit as old as humankind, for it is likely that early humans, living in hunter-gatherer groups, searched for nests of honey bees and robbed them of brood and honey for food, as do some of the hunter-gatherer peoples who have survived to the present time. Probably the earliest written description of the methods for finding the nest of a wild honey bee colony by lining bees is that of Columella, a Roman farm owner and writer on agriculture who lived in the first century A.D. In his book on the cultivation of bees, he gives delightfully detailed instructions for capturing bees at a spring, feeding them honey, and then releasing them one by one to trail them back to "the lurking place of the swarm."

 

[6강 - Exercise 5~6번: 거짓을 이용한 결속력과 그 한계]

One of the most dangerous properties of language is that it allows us to say things that aren't true. The danger is not just that people may be misled, but that falsehood may be more effective than truth. Truth becomes a victim of human sociality. The strength of human commitment to beliefs in supernatural entities and conspiracy theories ─ a kind of commitment found in human groups worldwide ─ draws precisely on the disconnect between a statement and the reality it claims to describe. If a group of people collectively state a belief in something that is likely to be false, then the statement, far from seeding doubt, will work as an honest signal of each individual's commitment to the group. Author Curtis Yarvin explains the attraction of improbable ideas in building social movements. For the purpose of social loyalty, it's actually better if the belief that people coordinate around is clearly false: "Nonsense is a more effective organizing tool than the truth.... To believe in nonsense is an unforgeable demonstration of loyalty. It serves as a political uniform. And if you have a uniform, you have an army." This is all very well if your only goal is to secure loyalty in defending a position, but reality will come for you at some point. While real soldiers may swear loyalty to magical ideas, they are ultimately in the business of physical force, not magic but brute reality. Once a bullet is flying, neither words nor the beliefs they express can stop it.

 

[6강 - Exercise 7번: 인간의 인지를 이해하기 위한 도구로서의 읽기]

Reading is a tool for understanding human cognition. The capacity to use language evolved in humans over many thousands of years, the end result being that children acquire it easily and rapidly through interactions with other speakers. Reading is different: it is a technology, like radio, that came into existence because a person ─ or possibly several ─ had the insight to invent it. The advent of reading occurred relatively recently in human history, well after humans had evolved capacities to speak, think, perceive, reason, learn, and act. Reading was a new tool created out of existing parts. The fortuitous by-product of this history is that we can use reading to investigate all these capacities. A person doesn't have to be a reading scientist to study reading; they might study vision or memory, for example, using experimental methods that happen to involve having people read words and sentences. This bonus has resulted in the creation of a research literature of exceptional depth and quality.

 

[6강 - Exercise 8번: 공유된 가정이 의사소통을 통해 전달되는 과정]

When talking about the shared assumptions that emerge from our social interactions and that we use to define reality, we need to also consider how these assumptions and ideas get communicated from person to person and then across entire populations. How does this actually happen? Communication takes place through the symbolic meanings that are captured in the words we say (and how we say them), the behaviors we exhibit, the gestures we perform, the clothes we wear, the makeup we (don't) apply, and so on. This particular view of social behavior can be summed up with the following statement: Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things and those meanings are, in the first place, created (and continuously re-created) through social interaction. This is yet another way of saying that reality is a subjective construction rather than an objective fact. It emerges from the infinite transactions or forms of communication between people.

 

[6강 - Exercise 9번: 지식재산법의 필요성과 역할]

Good ideas ― like a new way of treating a deadly disease or the perfect breakup song ― have the potential to improve lives. We want them to spread. So we should celebrate the fact that information goods don't run out or wear down. But the public-goods characteristics of information resources create a potential problem. Although a groundbreaking treatment or a heartbreaking song can be freely shared and enjoyed, making something new requires investments of time, effort, and money. If creators cannot recover those investments, plus a reasonable profit for their trouble, some will be dissuaded. In a world where creating new works is expensive and copying them is cheap and easy for the public, poets will become accountants, and inventors will become plumbers. Intellectual property (IP) law is meant to remedy this public goods problem ― the feared undersupply of creative investment ― by creating legal barriers to competition by prohibiting copying. IP rights are an effort to overcome the inherent characteristics of intellectual resources and force them to behave more like tangible property.

 

[6강 - Exercise 10번: 자기 자신에 충실한 삶]

When we reflect on our past, we can see that the directions we have taken can often be traced back to one single, short moment. Our lives often turn on what at the time seem to be the most trivial of occurrences: a chance meeting and a single sentence that was or wasn't said. As one ages and becomes wiser, it becomes possible to see that life is governed in this way and that the big things in life, such as who one marries, what career one pursues, where one lives and so on, often arise from such unexpected everyday and, at the time, seemingly trivial encounters. To be able to navigate life successfully, so that you make the best decisions for yourself at any given moment, you need to be authentic ─ you need to be able to counter external influences pulling you to go against the grain of your own gut feelings. Authenticity is at the heart of our decision-making and it is in each and every small moment in life that it makes a difference. We are constantly in the process of creating ourselves.

 

[6강 - Exercise 11~12번: 진정한 기술 사용 능력의 필요성]

Across the sciences and society, in politics and education, in warfare and commerce, new technologies do not merely augment our abilities, but actively shape and direct them, for better and for worse. It is increasingly necessary to be able to think of new technologies in different ways, and to be critical of them, in order to meaningfully participate in that shaping and directing. If we do not understand how complex technologies function, how systems of technologies interconnect, and how systems of systems interact, then we are powerless within them, and their potential is more easily captured by selfish elites and inhuman corporations. Precisely because these technologies interact with one another in unexpected and often-strange ways, and because we are completely entangled with them, this understanding cannot be limited to the practicalities of how things work: it must be extended to how things came to be, and how they continue to function in the world in ways that are often invisible and interwoven. What is required is not understanding, but literacy. True literacy in systems consists of much more than simple understanding, and might be understood and practised in multiple ways. It goes beyond a system's functional use to comprehend its context and consequences. It refuses to see the application of any one system as a cure-all, insisting upon the interrelationships of systems and the inherent limitations of any single solution. It is fluent not only in the language of a system, but in its metalanguage ─ the language it uses to talk about itself and to interact with other systems ─ and is sensitive to the limitations and the potential uses and abuses of that metalanguage. It is, crucially, capable of both performing and responding to critique.

 

[7강 - Exercise 1번: 일기를 체계적인 사회 연구에 적용하기 위한 요건]

Details of the conduct of everyday life can be found, for example, in the diaries of remarkable mid-17th century individuals such as Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn, whose images of London daily life still capture the imagination. But the daily lives recorded in their diaries are certainly not in any sense representative of the society they describe ─ if only because the very act of keeping a diary renders the diarists themselves remarkable. In addition, the earliest diaries were simple free-form records of sequences of activities, often without detailed reference to timings. This makes it impossible to accurately calculate the aggregate time spent in different activities. The application of diaries to systematic social research depends on collecting carefully harmonized daily activity reports in large samples selected randomly from a population. Sociologists, economists and demographers can use the results of such time-use studies to describe and explain the factors that influence the chains of behaviours which comprise daily life.

 

[7강 - Exercise 2번: 기후 변화에 의한 큰 재앙의 물결 도래]

Nature is changing with the explosive growth in urban populations and cities have to deal with transformations in nature. While it pays too much attention to technology, smart cities research barely gives a nod to climate change, which is already influencing urbanites with more intense storms, flooding, record-breaking temperatures resulting from the emission of greenhouse gases and burning forests. As I write this in the summer of 2018, intense heat has made the season unbearable, and often life-threatening, for millions of city dwellers. Moreover, drought endangers the habitability of more of the earth's surface, unprecedented fires are burning across California and British Columbia, monumental floods have drowned hundreds and made climate migrants of millions in India's Kerala state, and a rare hurricane has pounded Hawaii. The first wave of what most experts believe will be catastrophic climate change appears to have arrived.

 

[7강 - Exercise 3번: 포만감을 주는 중간 수치 열량의 음식]

If your brain thinks you're starving, it will eventually wear you down, no matter how strong your resolve. The solution is to give it the cues it needs to realize you aren't starving. The most straightforward way to do this is to choose foods that send strong satiety signals to the brain stem but contain a moderate number of calories. These are foods that have a lower calorie concentration, higher protein and/or fiber content, and a moderate level of tastiness. This tends to include simple foods that are closer to their natural state, such as fresh fruit, vegetables, potatoes, fresh meats, seafood, eggs, yogurt, whole grains, and beans. Bread is surprisingly calorie-dense, even when it's made from whole grains, so it can be easy to overeat. It may be preferable to get your starch from water-rich foods like potatoes, sweet potatoes, and beans rather than flour-based foods like bread and crackers. And foods based on white flour in particular, which tend to have a high calorie density and low fiber content, are definitely off the menu.

 

[7강 - Exercise 4번: 석기 시대 이야기에 등장하는 아이들 묘사]

A number of fictional Stone Age accounts, especially from the first three decades of the 20th century, portray children in the active role of innovator and inventor. The basic formula of children as implementers of ideas and inventors of material culture is found in a variety of tales about the first fish spear, flint saw, bow and arrow, boat, taming of fire and cooking meat, and so forth. Another common theme in Palaeolithic fiction is children successfully domesticating animals, most often wolves and horses. Frequently the act of taming leads to more significant contributions such as helping a struggling people find food or hunt animals in new ways. For instance, in Malu 's Wolf, the main character tames a wolf who later finds an elusive herd of mammoths upon which the group depends. The interesting twist in this story is the fact that Malu is a girl, which is quite rare. Like the boys, she is allowed to use a spear thrower and participate in an initiation ceremony in the painted cave.

 

[7강 - Exercise 5~6번: 고령자 삶의 질을 높이기 위한 주거 이동]

Many local moves make an important contribution to maintaining older people's independence and raising their quality of life. With more than one-fifth of the population of most developed countries now aged 60 or more (and many in their 50s having retired), and average life expectancy close to 80 years of age, clearly 'old age' can extend for decades and be a substantial fraction of a person's life. It is a life course stage of many changes. Early in retirement, some move to more attractive environments, where they can pursue non-work interests, and others move to smaller homes or to live nearer their children and grandchildren. At older ages, many experience losses in health, vigor, partners, and income, and become no longer able to afford or drive a car, to climb stairs, to maintain a large garden or mow the smallest lawn, and to walk to and from shops. Several of these changes seriously impair an older person's or a couple's quality of life, but can be improved by a move to a more convenient home or location. One can say that impaired personal mobility encourages residential mobility. Some move to housing schemes designed for older people, for the surveillance or support they provide, or to enjoy more personal security. Population geographers have made substantial contributions to understanding the role of migration in older people's lives, but the work has been selective, and local moves and housing adjustments have been neglected. There is immense scope for more collaboration between geographers and gerontologists in understanding the role of residential mobility in older people's lives.

 

[7강 - Exercise 7번: 지하철 차량 문 배치가 탑승자에게 미치는 영향]

In comparing different subway car layouts, we can see how seemingly small design choices can have outsized effects on user behavior. The position of a subway car's doors, for example, shapes how riders use that space. When designers position doors symmetrically, riders will often crowd around the doors, leaving much of the car unused. When designers choose to position the doors asymmetrically, however, use of the space is more evenly distributed; passengers can enter and exit the car more efficiently. In these cases, the affordances of both layouts are the same ─ riders in both environments are afforded the opportunity to use the whole space of the car to sit, stand, and ride. But by changing the location of the doors, designers can reshape riders' perceptions of that space, which influences how and whether riders take advantage of this affordance. By moving the position of the subway car doors, in other words, designers can use the power of the built environment to shape rider behavior, getting riders to do something they would not otherwise do.

 

[7강 - Exercise 8번: 강한 가족 유대가 지역 경제에 미치는 영향]

In 1958 the American political scientist Edward Banfield advanced an influential thesis that attributed southern Italy's lower level of prosperity to stronger family ties in the region. He argued that more intense family ties diminished trust outside of one's kinship group, weakened cooperation in pursuit of a common public goal, and thereby reduced the level of economic prosperity in the region. In line with his thesis, recent evidence suggests that kinship ties do indeed differ significantly across Italian regions, as they do more generally across countries. Likewise, tighter nuclear family bonds do tend to adversely affect levels of social trust, political participation, the status of women in the workforce and geographic mobility. And since, as the Nobel Prize-winning American economist Kenneth Arrow noted, business deals often rely on trust while its absence harms trade, lower levels of trust outside of the family setting might have diminished the level of economic development in southern Italy compared to the north.

 

[7강 - Exercise 9번: 수력 발전과 관련된 도전 과제와 기회]

Essentially, water is an inexhaustible source because once the water is used to produce electricity, it is usually returned to its original river or reservoir. Because of this, hydropower has great potential now and also into the future. Only 20 percent of hydroelectric potential has been developed within the United States; tapping into this potential, however, is often hindered by unsuitable terrains and large distances from needing communities. In addition, future projects do not necessarily require new locations or dams. Only 2,400 out of 80,000 dams in the U.S. currently produce electricity from hydroelectric power plants. Many of these existing dams could have advanced technologies installed to produce energy and increase efficiency. A study performed by the U.S. Department of Energy calculated that it would cost approximately $1,600 per kilowatt to add turbines to dams that currently lack electricity capabilities. With this data and the amount of potential future locations for hydroelectric power plants, the cost to retrofit the existing dams would be able to pay for themselves in just a short time. However, these attempts are complicated by the push for additional dam removals by local and national environmental groups.

 

[7강 - Exercise 10번: 집단 어리석음]

It sometimes happens that the many make a worse decision than the individual. Collective intelligence has its counterpart: collective stupidity. In groups, our capacity for good judgment can be severely reduced. In his studies on group norms, the psychologist Solomon Asch long ago addressed many well-known instances of this phenomenon. To name one: if a majority of people embrace a manifestly false and idiotic theory, others will go along with it merely because of the power of conformity. To name another instance: the false virtues of brainstorming. Take a group of ten people and make them work together for half an hour on a project (like tourism slogans to promote a town, for example). At the same time, set another group to work in which each member works separately on the task. Gather up their reports: the proposals of the second group are much richer and more plentiful than the proposals of the first group. Put another way, sometimes the whole is less than the sum of its parts.

 

[7강 - Exercise 11~12번: 농기구의 사용에 따른 성역할의 구분]

In 1970, the Danish economist Ester Boserup hypothesised that variations in present-day attitudes towards the role of women in the workforce were a product of methods of cultivation in the pre-industrial era. Her argument was that, owing to differences in the nature of the soil and the prevailing crops across regions, farmers in some areas cultivated their fields with hoes and rakes, whereas in others they used ploughs harnessed to horses or oxen. Since using a plough and controlling the animals that pull it requires massive upper-body strength, men have had a significant physiological advantage over women in ploughing and women in these regions have been limited to housework during the course of human history. It was largely the suitability of land for the use of the plough, Boserup argued, that led to the division of labour along gender lines. Evidence from agricultural societies across the world supports Boserup's argument. Areas that used the plough have consistently had a greater division of labour within the household: men have been predominantly engaged in agriculture, whereas women have been mainly confined to housework. In regions that made use of hoes and rakes, meanwhile, men and women have tended to share the farm work ─from land preparation to sowing and harvesting, as well as other tasks, such as ferrying water, milking cows, or collecting firewood ─ although most household work has remained predominantly in the domain of women.

 

[8강 - Exercise 1번: 자기 이야기를 들려주는 것의 중요성]

Telling stories of one's own is important for children and for those individuals close to them. Through reading and hearing real-life and fictional stories, children can direct their own life story, and there is power in learning through story and telling one's own story. When children tell stories themselves, they can be heard the way they want to be heard; children choose the words, drawings, and acts they want to use to express themselves. Children's self-created stories can help adults better understand and make children's thinking and knowledge visible to themselves and others. Narratives may even be a source of protection for young children unable to articulate their fears directly or needing safe mental spaces to nurture their hopes and dreams. Educators and families can work together to help children create stories that positively influence them and are a source of happiness and strength in their lives. A thoughtfully shared story can help a child better understand herself. Stories can help us realize that we are not alone. This knowledge can be a great comfort to a child.

 

[8강 - Exercise 2번: 긍정적 착각과 관계 개선]

Positive illusion can help with facing inevitable threats to relationships. Most relationships are inevitably threatened by conflicts of interest or seductive alternatives, and solving such problems often requires a departure from one's own direct interests. For example, when a partner behaves badly, accommodation rather than revenge is more conducive to the stability of the relationship. Further, when partners' preferences are inconsistent, it is beneficial to sacrifice one's own interests for the partner's interests. Overall, positive belief systems motivate us to find available solutions to dilemmas found across relationships. Such systems promote persistence, by increasing pro-social motivation, and facilitating a willingness to invest oneself in a relationship. Thus, it is plausible that positive illusion may serve to enhance the health of relationships.

 

[8강 - Exercise 3번: 달에 부여한 신성(神性)]

The moon is undoubtedly the earliest divinity that humans worshipped, even before the sun, wind, thunder, ocean, and all the forces of nature. They observed its different phases, its changing forms, its white light illuminating the darkness, its growth and diminishment, then its disappearance and renewal. Hence they made it into a higher being, inhabiting the heavens and gifted with magical powers over all that lived on earth. They worshipped it in order to win its favor and prevent it from harming them. It was only later that the moon came to be paired with the sun, and later still that humans recognized it possessed no light of its own but only reflected the sun's light. From then on, it was more or less subordinate to the sun, becoming its wife, sister, or daughter, even while retaining its remarkable characteristics. Moreover, although it became a female principle in many cultures, in others it remained a male divinity. Even today, the lexicon attests to these differences. In German, for example, the word designating the moon (der Mond) is masculine in gender while the one designating the sun (die Sonne) is feminine.

 

[8강 - Exercise 4번: 소셜 미디어와 사교]

Key terms used to describe social media's functionality, such as the "social," "collaboration," and "friends," reflect the communalist jargon of early utopian visions of the Web as a space that inherently enhances social activity. In reality, the meanings of these words have increasingly been informed by automated technologies that direct human sociality. Therefore, the term "connective media" would be preferable over "social media." What is claimed to be "social" is in fact the result of human input shaped by computed output and vice versa ─ a sociotechnical ensemble whose components can hardly be told apart. The norms and values supporting the "social" image of these media remain hidden in platforms' technological textures. Not coincidentally, the same assumptions supporting the goal of making the Web more social ─ or, if you wish, of making sociality more technical ― also support the ideology of making online sociality salable.

 

[8강 - Exercise 5~6번: 팬 작품(fanwork)을 바라보는 시각과 의의]

Culturally speaking, fans "borrow" from existing arts in any number of ways. The most visible of these practices for readers, in particular, is fan fiction, or stories written by "regular people" who have taken inspiration from a text and created a new narrative using components of that existing story-world. Ewan Morrison argues that "If one sees fanfic as 'the work of amateurs retelling existing stories,' then one would have to conclude that the number one book in the Middle Ages ─ the Bible ─ was a work of fanfic, as Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were non-professionals retelling the same story about the same character." Arguably, the stories told in the Bible had been transmitted via oral tradition for generations prior, but audiences were drawn to the tales at a visceral level, inciting retellings and embellishments before they were finally compiled into a written text. And, once the printed word became common and accessible, the possibility grew exponentially for people to pursue writing prompted by existing works. This is also true for other things, like paintings or architecture, that were crafted in response to another item. Fanworks, inspired by the things in which fans emotionally invest, are nothing new. The struggle is not in the practice itself; rather it is tied up with a complex relationship between the original author's text, the potential for the fan-made text to be confused with the original, and, obviously, the money that could migrate back and forth between the two.

 

[8강 - Exercise 7번: 북극곰의 진화]

According to evolutionary biologists, polar bears evolved from an ancestor they shared with brown bears, including grizzlies, with which they have been known to crossbreed, producing fertile hybrids known as 'pizzlies'. The approximate date of divergence between the two species is still unclear, although the oldest known fossil of what's thought to be a polar bear jaw is about 100,000 years old, so they must have evolved prior to that; according to the latest DNA analysis, it was probably within the last 500,000 years or so. More than likely this occurred during a warm interglacial period, when the climate was mild enough for brown bears to move northwards. After the next ice age took a hold, most headed back south, but some, thanks to mutations in their DNA which code for hair colour, became adapted to the harsher conditions. Those with the most suitable adaptations, namely a lighter whiter coat for camouflage when hunting seals, were more likely to survive. Those that didn't, died. It was through this process of natural selection in action that the polar bear was born.

 

[8강 - Exercise 8번: 기술로 인한 스트레스]

Though innovation is meant to help improve the flow of work and daily life, technology has also been associated with feelings of anxiety and irritability, headaches, mental fatigue, lost productivity, and poor job performance. Tech-related stress has been termed "technostress," and as the name implies, refers to stress caused by the inability to adapt to or cope with technology in a healthy way. The technology itself is not the source of stress, but how people handle and react to it. Distraction and lack of focus due to the never-ending interruption of incoming texts, emails, phone calls, and social notifications has been called the epidemic of our digital age. People often feel stressed because they don't know how to manage the daily onslaught of resources and information made available on the web, leading to feelings of being overwhelmed with "information overload."

 

[8강 - Exercise 9번: 녹음 공간의 진화]

With the emergence of recording technology, a new form of musical space arose: the recording studio. This allowed artists to make music to be heard at other times and places. These places evolved along with the growing mobility of music itself. Recording enabled various forms of editing, including splicing (moving sections in time) and overdubbing (placing sections atop one another), as well as a growing range of opportunities for processing and manipulating sound. While recording studios supplied vast opportunities for shaping sonic expressions, they also presented new challenges, some of which were addressed via architectural gestures. In order for only the intended sounds to be recorded, studios were constructed of materials that inhibited sound transfer. Such attempts sometimes led to "dead" acoustic properties, however. In the 1950s and 1960s, then, studios began to construct "echo chambers" using materials that reflected sound, such as concrete and tiles, in order to simulate the sound of certain places, including, of course, the "live" sound of concert venues. The use of stereo systems also allowed recorded music to be organized as a sonic panorama, thus producing the sense of being in an environment where sounds came from different sources.

 

[8강 - Exercise 10번: 창조적 실천에서 감수하게 되는 모험]

Risk plays an interesting role in terms of creative practice. Pushing the boundaries or breaking rules may entail risks. The results of this may be fruitful and invigorating but they may also be disastrous or wasteful. Flirting with risk means that the outcome is not guaranteed but also that aspirations go beyond the known and familiar, beyond the standard. This pushing of boundaries takes place at many different levels from the production of single objects to a broader kind of experimentation with materials themselves, and it may therefore be identified as a mainstay of creativity at the everyday level. This kind of creative risk is illustrated by the comments made by a modern-day potter when confronted with a copy of the Skarpsalling vessel, usually considered the most beautiful and outstanding Neolithic vessel found in Denmark. In describing the vessel's qualities she said its shape was 'vibrating'. Asked to specify what she meant, she explained that the Neolithic potter had pushed the shape to its upmost, to just before it would collapse.

 

[8강 - Exercise 11~12번: 생명 활동에서 과시를 통한 특성 전달]

In biology, signals have evolved to help organisms communicate otherwise unobservable characteristics. Take the black and yellow colours of a poison dart frog. This distinctive visual signal, in bold disregard of its camouflage, has been favoured by natural selection because it accurately indicates the frog's toxicity. ("Go on, eat me if you dare!") Similarly, a springbok's energetic leap, bounding into the air and lifting all four feet simultaneously, is a reliable signal that it's young and fit, so not worth chasing. Then we have the famed peacock, which illustrates its fitness through its glittering and luxurious tail. This expensive handicap serves no other purpose than to signal that a healthy male has resources to burn, boosting his attractiveness as a mate. Signals like these are favoured by natural selection so long as the costs are offset by the benefits. Critically, it is the cost or risk associated with this signal that is the most reliable way of confirming its truthfulness. If an old and tired springbok (a low-quality signaller) attempts to fake enthusiastic leaping (a high-quality signal), they will exhaust themselves, becoming vulnerable. As a result, low cost signals that are easy to fake are often unreliable cues of trustworthiness. Consistent with this, the eye-catchingly bright colouration of frogs has been found to correlate almost perfectly with their toxicity. Peacocks also don't just walk around telling peahens "I'm rich!" Any old bird can do that ─ they need to show it. When it comes to trust, talk is cheap.

 

[9강 - Exercise 1번: 사람과 사물의 인과 관계의 특징]

Causal relations often come in characteristic groups or clusters. For example, in thinking about two people, I might notice that, in contrast to a pair of billiard balls, they often causally act on each other at a distance. A remark to a person several feet away can cause that person to move quickly backward. Cause-and-effect relations for people have longer time lags than for balls. You do not move instantaneously after I speak, unlike cases in which one ball launches another. There is a noticeable lag. People move on their own without needing any external force. Simple balls do not spontaneously move. Self-generated motion conveys the strong impression that something inside the mover is causing the movement. People can move in irregular ways, darting this way and that. Balls move in smooth predictable paths unless something else intervenes. People interact contingently; balls do not. There is a back-and-forth rhythm to many human social interactions whether they be conversations, silent greetings, or hot pursuit. Taken together, several interacting causal relations distinguish the motions of people from those of simple solids.

 

[9강 - Exercise 2번: 현대 민주주의와 초기 민주주의의 비교]

Modern democracy evolved from early democracy, and this process began in England before first reaching a fuller extent ─ for free white males ─ in the United States. Modern democracy is a form of rule where political participation is broad but episodic: citizens participate by voting for representatives, but this occurs only at certain intervals, and there are few means of control other than the vote ─ representatives cannot be bound by mandates or instructions. All of this contrasts with early democracy. In early democracies, participation was often restricted to a smaller number of individuals, but for those who enjoyed the right, the frequency of participation was much higher. It was also the case that those who chose representatives could bind them with mandates, and individual localities could either reject central decisions or opt out of them. This created substantial blocking power and therefore a need for consensus. For this reason, there was less of a problem of "tyranny of the majority," whereas this is an issue with which all modern democracies must grapple.

 

[9강 - Exercise 3번: 사물의 신뢰성과 예측 가능성]

To an important extent, we need things to work properly ─ to be predictable and dependable. We would give in to despair if too many failed to do their job. A world where things perform their proper function is a hospitable place. And what makes it hospitable is precisely its reliability and predictability. There is a point, however, beyond which this very flawlessness starts to induce a serious form of alienation. For when things work flawlessly, without friction, less and less is demanded of us. In the long run, this effortlessness is our undoing. It's not just that we become increasingly unnecessary (which would be bad enough), but that we become more and more like the things themselves. We unconsciously start copying them. Their predictability becomes ours, and so does their fundamental inertness. Near something that never changes its patterns, we too slide into a heavily patterned existence. At the limit, if nothing changes to attract our attention, we become indistinguishable from those things, and lose ourselves in their midst. Hospitability is admirable, but when a place becomes too hospitable, it turns positively hostile. [요약문] While predictability and dependability of things are desirable to a certain degree, a perfectly patterned world that doesn't require our active effort and distinctiveness becomes harmful to us.

 

[9강 - Exercise 4번: 뇌의 불안 극복과 새로운 신경 경로]

One of the biggest challenges in overcoming fear is that, although the brain learns lessons quickly, it does not unlearn lessons quickly. Ever traveled by train? On every trip, trains obey the direction of the tracks. If an engineer wanted to take the train in a different direction, but lacked the track, it would not be possible. New tracks would be necessary to divert the train onto a new course. And once a train has a destination on a track, it chums with momentum. The challenge lies in laying the new track. Like most goals in life, it would take patience, effort, and commitment to build that new path. There is a similar challenge in facing anxiety and changing your brain's chemistry. In other words, creating a new neural pathway that is unafraid of what you currently fear is going to take some effort. But it can absolutely be done. You can change your brain's response to your anxiety-provoking stimulus by creating a new neural pathway.

 

[9강 - Exercise 5~7번: 주인의 뇌전증 발작을 예측하는 고양이 Tee Cee]

Keenly observant and alert to the slightest changes in their surroundings, cats could make wonderful guardians. So far, however, they've firmly rejected any such callings. All save for one. The cat in question is named Tee Cee, and he has earned international fame for his exceptional ability to predict epileptic seizures ─ a skill he's used to ease the suffering of his grateful owner. Ironically, however, the English cat had endured quite a bit at the hands of a human, who stuffed Tee Cee and his siblings in a box and tossed it in a river. Tee Cee was rescued and taken to an adoption center, where he became the pet of Michael Edmonds, a Sheffield man who suffered from an extremely dangerous and unpredictable form of epilepsy. The disorder causes sudden, violent seizures that strike without warning. The problem was so serious that he couldn't leave home unescorted, for fear of having an attack at some unexpected time or place. Edmonds' new cat provided timely help. Tee Cee took a great deal of interest in his new owner ─ particularly, it seemed, when he was about to seize. This was remarkable, because Edmonds displays no symptoms prior to attacks. Or at least, none detectable by humans. "We noticed that Tee Cee began staring at my stepfather prior to a seizure and then ran to my mother to let her know all is not well, acting as an early warning system," Edmonds' stepdaughter, Samantha Laidler, told the BBC. The behavior was so unexpected that it took a while for family members to make the connection between Tee Cee's staring sessions and Edmonds' epileptic fits. But once the link was established, the fame of the former stray spread far and wide. In 2006 he was nominated for a prestigious Rescue Cat of the Year Award ― quite an accomplishment for a cat who was once, literally, thrown away as garbage.

 

[9강 - Exercise 8번: 작품의 손실을 막는 데 도움이 되는 소유권]

Valuable cultural works disappear for all sorts of reasons. Government censorship can remove works from the market; books and records go out of print when they are considered commercially unviable; films ─ from The Interview to Disney's Song of the South ― are hidden from view for reasons that range from political controversies to pure marketing strategies. Works can also be lost to accidents, natural disasters, and plain old inattention. Ownership helps guard against those losses. When we own our copies, we have greater incentives to make efforts to preserve them, and it's harder for publishers and government actors to erase them. And when works are distributed widely on secondary markets through resale and lending, the risk of loss is reduced. Even though we all benefit from the preservation of our shared cultural heritage, outside of the small circle of archivists and cultural historians, few of us give it much thought. So when we choose to license rather than own, we are chipping away at preservation efforts.

 

[9강 - Exercise 9번: 유리의 형성 과정]

Look around you right now, and there's a good chance you'll find yourself in the presence of some glass. Whatever the item ─ a drinking glass, glass lenses, a window pane ─ it was once a molten liquid that reached temperatures of over 1700'C and was then allowed to cool. During this process, the molecules never achieved a structured arrangement but instead remained as disordered as they had been in the liquid state. A molecular snapshot of the liquid state and the glass state would appear almost identical, although there is more crowding in the glass thanks to the contraction that occurs during cooling. As this happens, molecules have a harder time slipping quickly past one another, so they begin to slow down, and as they do this, they make stronger connections. It's a bit like how it's easier to grab the hand of someone who is walking slowly past you than to grab the hand of someone driving past you in a convertible going 150 kilometres per hour, which is not advisable. As the cooling continues, so, too, does this process until at last the molecules become fixed in place and glass is formed.

 

[9강 - Exercise 10번: 협업에 대한 단백질과 인간의 비교]

Proteins are among the most important molecules we possess, because they are also among the most collaborative. They play distinct roles in helping the body to interpret changes, communicate them and decide on actions as a result. Our bodies work in large part because our proteins know their own role, appreciate that of their peers and act accordingly. They work as part of a team, but through the expression of entirely individual personalities and capabilities. Dynamic yet defined, individual within a team context, proteins can offer a new model for how we organize and interact as people. Like humans, proteins respond to their environment, communicate information, make decisions and then put them into action. But unlike us, proteins are actually very good at doing this: working in an instinctively collaborative way without letting personality clashes, personal problems or office politics become obstacles. And they achieve this not by trying to 'fit in' with their environment, but by aligning and making use of their various chemistries: embracing the complementarity of contrasting 'types'. [요약문] Humans within an organization often attempt to conform to their environment, but protein molecules collaborate through utilizing their unique characteristics and abilities.

 

[9강 - Exercise 11번: 도파민의 특징과 역할]

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that runs the brain's reward and pleasure center. It enables us to see rewards and pushes us to go achieve them. It is also highly addictive ─ all addictions cause a powerful surge in dopamine. When we achieve goals, dopamine makes us feel pleasure. Our brains develop tolerance for dopamine, meaning that as time goes on, increasingly higher levels of dopamine are needed to get the same level of pleasure. Addictive, novelty-seeking behaviors are the result of high levels of dopamine. This is how one gets addicted to achieving goals. The neurons that fire together get wired together in our brains, meaning stress and the dopamine rush that goes along with it get connected. This might explain why some chronically stressed people don't celebrate achieving goals ─ they are constantly looking for the next goal to get their next amount of dopamine. Their employees might feel discouraged because their achievements go overlooked or unappreciated. These managers may artificially create crises to justify the elevated level of stress and dopamine their brains have gotten used to.

 

[9강 - Exercise 12~14번: 품위를 잃지 않은 아버지의 복수]

When David was three years old, his parents opened a restaurant in the small town of Weatherford, Texas ─ the first Asian restaurant in the whole county. His dad, an immigrant from Thailand, saw it as an incredible business opportunity. He was right: loyal customers kept their little family restaurant open for nearly forty years. Growing up as one of the few Asian American kids in his school wasn't easy. Even though David made some of his best memories and strongest friendships in Weatherford, there were a few immature kids who mocked him only because he looked different from them. And there was a boy, Olly, who was one year older than David, and he was the one whom David hated the most. Olly would say mean things to David, making fun of him. However, Olly's family were regular customers of the restaurant that David's family owned. One day, David finally told his dad about Olly and all the mean things he had said. His dad said, "Honey, it breaks my heart to hear that. I know how upset and sad you've been." So David was hoping that Olly was going to get his punishment. He didn't think his dad was going to cause a scene and throw the family out, but couldn't he at least hide some hot pepper in his pad thai for his son's revenge? Instead, the next time Olly's family came in to eat, David's father was just as polite as ever. David watched them clean their plates and leave with satisfied sighs. After they left, he asked his father why he didn't kick them out. With a smile, he answered, "I got my revenge. By giving that family quality service and delicious food, I elevated my family above their ugliness. Remember, son. Even when people say ugly things to you, you shouldn't let them take your dignity."

 

[10강 - Exercise 1번: 공룡과의 공존에 대한 잘못된 확신]

In American colleges, one student out of two still recently believed that 'cavemen' had to defend themselves against dinosaurs. Prehistorians often deplore the ignorance of the public, and express their surprise that even those who seem interested in the past are inclined to accept the most unsound ideas. Yet the struggle of humans against dinosaurs could be considered a kind of knowledge ─ one that is erroneous ― rather than simply the manifestation of ignorance. An erroneous idea does not become less absurd merely for being shared by half the population; it becomes nevertheless interesting as a social phenomenon. In fact, the image of the caveman fighting dinosaurs is not entirely devoid of factual elements: nobody will deny that the dinosaurs really existed, just as prehistoric humans did. On the other hand, the origin of the deep-seated conviction that our ancestors shared the Earth with the dinosaurs remains obscure, because human remains have never been found in the same geological formations as dinosaur bones, and no scholar has risked suggesting that our ancestors lived alongside these giant reptiles. It was non-experts, rather than scientists, who forged this idea, thus leaving us an excellent illustration of ordinary thinking at work.

 

[10강 - Exercise 2번: 표기 체계의 발전과 소리의 표현]

Writing as we know it today was not a single technology stemming from a single invention. It's a combination of various innovations which took place over a long period, with differing effects in different parts of the world. But the stages of evolution it went through are very similar in all the different places. The earliest incarnations of all these writing systems were pictographic. They consisted of simplified drawings acting as stylised representations of concrete entities: a house, a river, a drawing of the head of a cow to represent a cow. As their use spread, so they began to accumulate broader meanings based on the context of this use and to be combined together to create ideograms. Bird+egg, for example, represented fertility. But the most significant stage in their development was when they began to be used to represent not simply ideas but also sounds. Once this happened, writing could imitate spoken language rather than operating as a separate, parallel system of communication. It was this transition which led to the fully flexible systems we have today.

 

[10강 - Exercise 3번: 도움을 구할 때 느끼는 불편함]

People tend to overestimate how harshly others will judge them. This dynamic may apply to the case of help-seeking. Even a small request can make the help-seeker feel self-conscious, embarrassed, and guilty. In our research, we have found that the anxiety help-seekers experience over how their request will come across is surprising to potential helpers who do not know what all the fuss is about. In one study, we asked two samples of potential helpers (teaching assistants and peer advisors) to estimate the number of students who would seek their help during a single semester. The peer advisors overestimated by over 60%, and the teaching assistants by 20%, the number of students who would ask them for help. This prediction error emerged even though the peer advisors had been students themselves the prior year, and the majority of teaching assistants had worked as teaching assistants before (often for the same class). Nevertheless, their past experience as help-seekers offered no clues in predicting others' future help-seeking behavior. [요약문] Potential helpers mistakenly predicted the number of help-seekers that would visit them because they failed to see that help-seeking behavior might make help-seekers feel uncomfortable.

 

[10강 - Exercise 4번: 시간 사용을 통한 상황 통제]

The effective use of time is one of the ultimate ways to display authority, even when you don't have it. Whoever controls time controls the situation in most instances. They will always remind anyone who wants to meet with them that their time is valuable. However, there may be situations where you will want to reverse your use of tight time tactics. Let's say you have agreed to meet with one of your peers to discuss a difficult situation that has developed between your two respective departments. You need more help from your peer than she needs from you to get things resolved, even though you've told her your time is limited. When she enters your office at the appointed hour, take your watch off ostentatiously, and place it face down on your desk. Say, "My time belongs to you for as long as you need it." Watch the cooperation level of your peer go up exponentially at the outset of your meeting. You'll be able to get anything you want from her.

 

[10강 - Exercise 5~7번: 가난한 고아들에게 친절을 베푼 Mrs. Annabel]

There lived three poor orphans named Havin, Mabel, and Anthony. They were siblings, and they loved each other so much. In their town lived Mrs. Annabel, a widow, who was the town's doctor. She was a lovely woman, but she had no children. Every morning Havin and his siblings would go to the town square to beg for food and clothes. Mrs. Annabel loved Havin's little sister, Mabel, and gave her big apples every day. One day, Mrs. Annabel needed help to organize her garden, and Havin and his siblings offered to help. Together, they planted vegetables and flowers. "Oh, they are so delightful," Mrs. Annabel said to herself. Havin and his siblings were very good kids, and they were loved by everyone in town. Then one day, Mabel became seriously ill. Havin carried her on his back and ran down to the town's clinic. Mrs. Annabel immediately took Mabel from Havin and placed her on the examination table. Little Mabel lay weakly on the table. "I don't want to die," she cried weakly. "Come on, baby, you will be just fine!" Mrs. Annabel assured her. After examining her, Mrs. Annabel brought out a needle and an apple. She said to Mabel, "I have an apple for you, but I'll only give it to you after you receive this injection." Mabel looked at the needle with fright. "I hate needles, Mrs. Annabel." "I know, darling. But if you promise to be brave, I'll take you to my house and give you some ice cream." Mrs. Annabel assured her. Mabel lay bravely on the bed and allowed Mrs. Annabel to do her job. She eventually woke up feeling better. After Mabel's recovery, Havin went to Mrs. Annabel's clinic. "Ma'am," he called out as he knocked softly on her door. "Do you need something?" she asked him. "Thank you for taking care of Mabel, but I don't have any money to pay her bills," he spoke shyly. "Don't worry, dear Havin. This one is all on me," Mrs. Annabel said to him. Havin thanked her for her kindness. Two months later, Mrs. Annabel adopted Havin and his two siblings. She loved them like her own children and took good care of them. She took them to the town's school. They did well in school and won prizes every school year. Mrs. Annabel was proud of them, and they lived happily ever after.

 

[10강 - Exercise 8번: 태도 양극화의 특징]

Attitude polarization is currently increasing, at least in North America and Europe. The most important reason for the growing polarization is probably increasingly selective exposure to information. People on both sides of an ideological debate have no difficulty at all finding like-minded websites that support their viewpoints, often in even more radical ways. Getting in touch with others sharing their beliefs makes them even more confident in their viewpoints. In other words, while one could expect that the availability of a broad ideological spectrum of media information could foster engagement with views diverging from one's own, experimental research suggests that it actually leads to increased affective polarization. People's in-group biases are strengthened by the new opportunities to get in touch with like-minded people. Confirmation bias influences which sources of information people utilize; in fact, there seems to be a vicious circle involved: Increases in polarization cause stronger confirmation biases, which, in turn, lead to more biased information search. Elective exposure to political information is also increased by customizability technology creating so-called "filter bubbles."

 

[10강 - Exercise 9번: 메시지 전달 수단의 역사]

The desire to communicate is a part of being human. We have always needed to express ourselves but it took a long time before we could do so successfully. About 100,000 years ago, we developed the capacity to communicate using speech. About 40,000 years ago, we drew pictures on the walls of caves. Through the ages, we've used various systems to send messages like smoke signals, semaphores (flags), pigeons, and human messengers, each of which had its own advantages and disadvantages. Each system worked when the conditions were just right, but was limited at least some of the time. For instance, smoke signals and semaphore systems did not work at night because they depended on sunlight for the receiver to see the signal. Messengers were slow and could be captured during times of conflict or war. Pigeons could carry very small messages but were susceptible to natural predators and severe weather.

 

[10강 - Exercise 10번: 뇌의 부위별 기능과 그 경계]

Is the brain an assembly of distinct components, each with a defined and separate function? One of the many difficulties in studying how the brain works is precisely because it is not arranged in this way. That does not mean that one cannot assign specific functions to anatomically recognisable parts of the brain. Indeed one can: for example, the cerebral cortex that forms most of the outside of the brain and gives it its typically wrinkled or folded appearance has areas that we know are concerned with identifiable actions. One is responsible for generating movement, another for analysing incoming visual information and so on. Similar functional boundaries have been recognised in other parts of the brain. That is not an issue. What is, however, is whether there are clearly defined boundaries between these areas, either anatomically ─ where does one begin, or the other end? ─ or functionally ─ is there a circumscribed area of the brain that has an equally precise function? The answer to both questions is a resounding 'no.' [요약문] Although it is possible to attribute functions to anatomical parts of the brain, the anatomical and functional boundaries of those parts are not clear-cut.

 

[10강 - Exercise 11번: 사회 운동 집단에서의 관행]

Social movements where a community expresses a desire for change ― and all social life ─ are spaces of orderly interaction operating through recurring practices. These routines constitute the group style. Actions are repeated and become accepted through that repetition. Individuals must be able to foresee the likely responses of others and adjust accordingly. I refer to these stabilizing forces as circuits of action. While these assumptions about how others will respond are sometimes upended, to be useful, expectations must frequently be met. Nowhere is this more salient than in social movements, where coordination is crucial. Interaction is filtered through the collective awareness of what participants believe is appropriate. Offering feeling words after meetings ― typically positive ones ― serves as a ritual that expresses both individual feelings and collective sentiment. Circuits of action incorporate the rules of the interaction order and the content of group cultures in practices that are anticipated and comforting. However, for interaction to be orderly within a collaborative group, negotiations and adjustments are essential, building relationships that are flexible but durable.

 

[10강 - Exercise 12~14번: Eli Manning과 자신감]

On August 17, 2011, New York Giants quarterback Eli Manning sat for a live ESPN radio interview after his practice during the Giants training camp. When asked if he was a "Top 10, Top 5" quarterback, Manning said, "I think I am." And then when asked specifically if he was on the same level as New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady, Manning paused and then said, "Yeah, I consider myself in that class ... and Tom Brady is a great quarterback." Manning's statements touched off a lot of media excitement. Columnists and bloggers wrote at length about how indefensible Manning's opinion was. How in the world could Manning, with only one Super Bowl championship and MVP award and only two Pro Bowl appearances on his resume, compare himself to Brady, with six Pro Bowl appearances, three championships, and two NFL MVP awards on his resume? Brady was coming off an excellent 2010 season, throwing thirty-six touchdown passes and only four interceptions, while Manning had thrown a league-high twenty-five interceptions. How could Manning think of himself as Brady's peer? Fast-forward from that training camp interview in August 2011 to February 5, 2012, to the conclusion of that season's Super Bowl. Eli Manning is standing at the center of Lucas Oil Stadium lifting the championship trophy and receiving his second Super Bowl MVP award. Manning's New York Giants have just come from behind to defeat Tom Brady's favored New England Patriots. In the closing minutes of the fourth quarter, with the Giants losing, Manning engineered the 88-yard game-winning drive, making four crucial throws. Eli Manning showed the world that his statement the previous summer was simply the honest expression of a confident competitor. Even the additional Super Bowl MVP award hasn't stopped football experts from debating whether Eli Manning is indeed a "Top 10, Top 5 quarterback" in the same class as Tom Brady. Arguments about players go on endlessly. What isn't up for debate is that Eli performed at the highest level in a very competitive profession's most demanding and important position for many years until his retirement. He made the best of his talent and his preparation by building his confidence, protecting that confidence, and playing confidently. He became as good as he could be.

 

[11강 - Exercise 1번: 인간의 적응 가능성의 특징]

In the study of human adaptability, the ecosystem is the total situation in which adaptability occurs. Because human populations have spread throughout the earth, this adaptability varies a great deal. A population in a specific ecosystem adjusts to environmental conditions in ways that reflect both present and past conditions. A desert population that has existed in that environment for several millennia will differ significantly in its responses to desert conditions from a population that migrated there only in the past generation. A population that has existed longer in a particular environment is more likely than a recently settled population to have developed physiological and even genetic characteristics for coping with environmental constraints, such as hypoxia. The more recent inhabitants will have physiological and cultural adjustments attuned to another environment. Adjusting to the new environment may take several generations, and the final result may or may not resemble the adjustments of the original inhabitants. This is particularly true when native populations are available. The newcomers may borrow some of the practices of the original inhabitants in order to achieve a satisfactory adjustment to their new habitat.

 

[11강 - Exercise 2번: 가능성에 대한 제약]

We inhabit worlds that are not only full of possibility but also foster a variety of possible selves. In using this concept, we should recognize the considerable constraints placed on realizing the possible and, at times, even being able to envision it. These limitations are, on the one hand, physical and biological; for example, for as much as we would like to be able to fly, this is not possible given our anatomy and the gravity on earth. Such constraints are transcended in our imagination, and, indeed, visions of the physically impossible inspired generations, across the centuries, from the ancient Greeks' stories of Icarus to Leonardo da Vinci's sketches of flying machines. Ultimately, the impossible became at least partially possible, and humanity is capable today not only of traveling by air but also of reaching outer space. But, even more significant than physical constraints are the social and cultural ones, both imposed by others and self-imposed. These limitations placed on discovering and exploring the possible can be explicit, like in the case of living under harsh totalitarian governments, or implicit, exemplified by the pervasive power of discourses and social representations to shape our thinking without us realizing it.

 

[11강 - Exercise 3번: 지나친 자신감의 영향]

Some researchers suggest that although successful performance leads to increased efficacy, subsequent levels of performance may decrease due to evaluation errors. More specifically, research has shown that overconfidence may impede performance due to the overestimation of the accuracy of one's knowledge. For example, highly confident individuals are found to overestimate the precision of their answers and thus underestimate the potential consequences of their decisions. This is particularly relevant for those who possess the power to impact many, such as executives, as the relationship between power and confidence is particularly relevant to understanding how overconfidence may impact executive decision making. More specifically, it was found that the psychological experience of power is related to overconfidence in decision making, which in turn may lead to adverse consequences for the organization and its environment. [요약문] When individuals overrate the accuracy of their knowledge, there might be a negative impact on their performance and decision making, especially in the case of highly influential people who are overconfident in their decision making.

 

[11강 - Exercise 4번: 변화를 중시하는 현대의 실용적인 태도]

Modern philosophies since the rise of evolutionary theory in the 19th century have come to give change a more central place. They see constant change in the universe, in the animal world, in populations and social forms. Even the most abstract philosophies have begun to think more in terms of process and time and the flow of events, and less in terms of a fixed essence and a rational nature to the world and man. Modern practical attitudes reflect the actual change that a constantly revolutionized technology brings in human living. Unlike the medieval cathedral, built to last beyond the memories of men, a modern skyscraper is built to be replaced in due time. A home is not an ancestral dwelling, but a rapid construction that may not survive the last mortgage payment -─ if you have not moved away by then. The number of people who live today in the house in which they were born is small, and the number of those who glory in the fact is smaller still. We simplify everything and turn to the latest model.

 

[11강 - Exercise 5~7번: 아들 Ted를 위한 Jackson 씨의 크리스마스 선물]

Mr. Jackson was so excited about a very special gift he had purchased for his five-year-old son, Ted. He had saved up his money and bought him a combination compact disc-cassette tape player. He was sure his son had no idea what was in this package under the Christmas tree. Ted had asked for this, but had also told his father that he knew he could not afford to get it and that was all right. Two days before Christmas, Mr. Jackson realized that Ted did not have any CDs for the player. It would not be right to get a present for Ted that he would not be able to enjoy. So Mr. Jackson took the package from under the tree and took one final shopping trip to find some CDs Ted would like and that would fit in the player. Ted noticed that the package was missing and asked his father about its absence. Mr. Jackson came up with the perfect alibi. "You see, son, Santa wanted to look at your present and bring you the perfect presents to go with what I was getting you. After he looked at it, he wrapped it up again in different wrapping paper and just gave it back to me when I returned home from shopping." Ted appeared to listen with wonder and delight as his father spun this outrageous tale. Mr. Jackson was very relieved to see his son's bright face. Later that night, Mr. Jackson was walking past his son's room. He noticed that Ted was kneeling beside his bed, praying. Mr. Jackson was touched by the sight and peeked through the crack in the door and listened to his son's prayer. He prayed: "God, you know I already prayed to you once tonight, but I just have to say one more thing to you without Dad here. I don't know why he blamed Santa for swiping my CD player, but I just want to thank you for getting him to bring it back."

 

[11강 - Exercise 8번: 유기체의 경향 평가]

Simple organisms like bacteria use general algorithms built into their genomes to assess trends. For example, E. coli have algorithms that say it is wasteful to produce the enzymes for processing lactose when there isn't much lactose about. These rules have been installed in the organism's genome over millions of generations by natural selection and have persisted because individuals that inherited this algorithm were more likely to survive and reproduce. But in order to know when to apply the rules, bacteria also need knowledge of what is going on right now. Are lactose levels rising or falling? Identifying trends requires sensors. But it also requires some form of memory so you can compare the situation now with the situation a moment ago. Indeed, it may be that memory exists primarily to enable future thinking. Recent neurological studies have shown that in organisms with nervous systems, memory and future thinking are handled by the same parts of the brain, which may explain why people who lose the ability to remember vividly also lose the ability to imagine alternative futures.

 

[11강 - Exercise 9번: 길거리 시장을 향한 부정적 시선]

Despite the significant importance of marketplaces as the core of economic and socio-cultural transactions in the city, local authorities often tend to problematise them as unhygienic and unhealthy urban environments. Early examples of this situation were in the major European cities in the mid-19th century, where poverty, overpopulation and pollution were the main problems in inner-city areas. For example, in London, street markets were a part of the vivid urban scene in the 19th century supplying cheap food and products. However, they were unorganised and naturally growing. The city authorities have viewed these markets as components of the city's degraded living conditions. They introduced structural spatial changes to address this problem, including removing street markets and developing new and enlarged indoor marketplaces. These new indoor markets functioned as an urban renewal tool as well, as their construction required the demolition of existing building blocks and reorganisation of streets.

 

[11강 - Exercise 10번: 복잡한 지능을 지닌 생물 종의 유일함]

It is interesting to note that out of all of the species that have ever existed on the Earth, only one has had complex intelligence. One could argue that this is naturally the case, since only one species could be the first to develop intelligence and the existence of that species might preclude another intelligent species from ever developing. This is a false argument, however. A better comparison comes about from noting that, through the last few hundred million years, there have been a large number of species that might have evolved into intelligent creatures but did not. If intelligence is such a beneficial trait, allowing a species to compete more effectively in its environment, then one might expect that many different species would develop intelligence. Birds have existed longer than mammals, and they did not develop intelligence. Dinosaurs reigned for over 100 million years and there is no evidence to suggest that they might have developed intelligence. Out of all of the species that might have developed intelligence, only one did. [요약문] For all the species that have ever existed, the development of intelligence has been a sole event, suggesting that the presence of this trait is not necessarily essential for a species to compete better in its environment.

 

[11강 - Exercise 11번: 암컷을 위한 수컷 베짜기 새의 집짓기]

Among vertebrates, birds are among the most accomplished of architects. In some cases, as in several African weaver bird species, males alone build the nest and use the finished product to advertise for a female, and when one is willing to approach, she will examine it in detail and then decide whether to take the male as her partner. Weaver nests are not tied to branches but free-hanging intricate structures that have only a small opening. The male first has to pass the test regarding the quality of the nest site, and if she is satisfied, the partner comes as part of the package. The female behaves more like a tenant and does not even look at him but will inspect the nest very thoroughly. Consideration is first and foremost given to the nest site and its quality and the territory (where applicable). This may seem a little callous, but the fact that the male is able to build such a nest or have a good territory is a statement of desirable qualities, experience and assets.

 

[11강 - Exercise 12~14번: Willie Author의 가축 운송과 소 탈출 사건]

It was like any other normal day ─ sale day at the livestock barn. The sale was over, and all the livestock was gone with one final load to move. Willie Author had gotten his friend Tom started in transporting livestock about a year earlier, and whenever they met at barn sales, they would talk about the trips they had made. He had been transporting cows for many years without any out-of-the-ordinary events, but little did he know that this would turn out to be a trip he would never forget. With the help of Tom, he had loaded out and was headed to another sale barn in the neighboring state of Mississippi. About halfway into the trip and a little tired, he decided to stop for coffee and a rest from driving. He pulled into a little cafe that was a usual stopping place along the trip. When he walked into the cafe, he noticed two young men laughing and talking loud like they might be just a little bit drunk, but he didn't think too much about it. He sat down at a table and ordered coffee while making conversation with a few locals. One was a deputy on duty that soon finished his coffee and started out the door. No one had paid much attention to the two young men that had just walked out of the cafe. The deputy noticed the gate open on the cattle trailer and hollered to Willie Author to tell him, and about that time, a cow came running by the door. He knew right off what had happened. The two young men had decided they would have some fun, so when they walked by the trailer, one of the men just opened the gate and let those cows out right there in the middle of town. Willie Author said it took till the middle of the next day for him and the police to get all those cows rounded up and loaded again. He went straight to a store and bought a chain and a lock. He said, "I bet that won't happen to me again."

 

[12강 - Exercise 1번: 공급망 사이의 외부 효과 처리 비용의 전가]

Because supply networks do not operate in isolation from each other, they may generate connections, synergies, and conflicts. Almond growers in Southern California, where little water is available, inevitably find themselves clashing with other food industries to secure water rights. The runoff of fertilizers from agricultural fields that flows into rivers and eventually to the sea may create sustainability issues for industries such as fish farming or fishing. However, farmers who use fertilizers to increase their yields and improve their incomes do not cover the expenses necessary to clean polluted waters. These examples show how productive factors in one supply network can easily turn into negative externalities in others. By negative externalities, economists and environmental experts mean the side effects caused by one industry that are not taken into account in determining its costs of operation, such as pollution and public health issues generated by the production or consumption of certain goods. By not having to pay to take care of these side effects, an industry can keep its prices low, transferring costs to other actors or industries that unwillingly find themselves dealing with the externalities and, often, picking up the tab.

 

[12강 - Exercise 2번: 행성 탐사차에 대한 자율성 부여]

Rovers have made important discoveries on and increased our understanding of Mars. However, a major obstacle to scientific exploration has been the communication link between the rover and the operations team on Earth. It can take as much as half an hour for sensor information to be sent from Mars to Earth and for commands to be sent from Earth to Mars. In addition, guidance to rovers needs to be planned in advance because there are limited upload and download windows with Mars due to the positions of orbiters serving as information relays between the planets. Recent research has suggested that the efficiency of science exploration missions can be improved by a factor of five through the introduction of greater levels of autonomy. Human operators would still provide high-level guidance on mission objectives, but the rover would have the flexibility to select its own science targets using the most up-to-date information. In addition, it would be desirable for rovers to respond appropriately to various hazards and system failures without human intervention.

 

[12강 - Exercise 3번: 토착 집단이 직면한 기후 불평등]

One form of climate injustice arises from the way that scientists and other climate activists have tried to motivate personal action or policy change to reduce climate-forcing emissions. The call to action on climate is almost always sounded as an appeal to save the world from environmental disaster. This way of framing the ethical issues ignores the fact that for many poor and indigenous peoples around the world, the disaster has already occurred. They are currently involved in picking up the pieces and adapting to a world in which their traditional ways of life are no longer possible. In presenting climate justice as the attempt to avoid some future disaster, climate activists fail to recognize the plight of people who are suffering today. This is a failure of justice in recognition that ignores and even conceals injustices currently being suffered by indigenous groups. It continues a pattern of marginalization that such groups have experienced since the early days of colonization. [요약문] The way scientists and climate activists portray the ethical issues of climate change as something that relates to a future disaster overlooks the injustices that poor and indigenous peoples are presently experiencing, and it contributes to sustaining their alienation.

 

[12강 - Exercise 4번: 자기 조절과 자유 의지]

Self-regulation should qualify almost by definition as at least a limited form of free will. That is, without self-regulation, the organism cannot help but act on the first or strongest impulse that arises in response to a situation. With self-regulation, the organism can override that response, allowing a different impulse or response to take over. Overriding the first response frees the person from having to respond in that particular way and, if only briefly, creates a gap or uncertainty that opens the door for other possibilities. This is not to say that the eventual response is necessarily better than the first or that it is itself not the product of an inner causal sequence of responses. But the fact of changing away from the first to enable the second should constitute a kind of freedom, and it would almost certainly be recognized as such. And humans who could exert that much free will, who could override one response in order to permit another, would probably survive and reproduce better than their rivals who couldn't.

 

[12강 - Exercise 5~7번: 자녀에게 준 교훈]

One day Tony decided to have a family movie day with his kids. He put the largest television up on the family room stage while his four kids, including his youngest Joe, set up chairs in front of it. To make the room dark like a real movie theater, the whole family taped tinfoil on all the windows to block any light. Tony made a small "box office" outside the family room, with a turnstile made from a cut-off broom handle in the doorway. He also made individual tickets that would be sold through the box office. That evening all the kids lined up at the box office to buy their tickets, giggling in anticipation. Once the audience was seated according to the seat number on each ticket, Tony switched off all the lights. It felt like they were at an actual movie theater! About halfway through the movie, little Joe got up and left the theater to visit the bathroom. When he came back to the family room, he saw his dad waiting by the turnstile. Joe started to slide past him, but Tony held the broom handle down so he couldn't lift it. "Ticket, please!" he said in a polite voice. Joe smirked up at him. "Very funny." But when he tried to move past the fake turnstile, Tony held it firmly in place. "Sir," he repeated, ''I'll need to see your ticket in order to let you in." Joe felt around in both pockets, but there was no ticket. "Come on, Dad. You know I had a ticket because you sold me one before the movie started!" He couldn't believe his dad was holding him up. "All right, sir," Tony said. "But next time remember your ticket stub so there's proof that you had it. Okay?" Then he let him through. Tony's gentle but firm teasing of Joe over the ticket wasn't just a joke. Although the kids had a lot of freedom in their daily lives, he still expected them to have a sense of personal responsibility for their actions. The lesson Joe learned with the lost movie ticket was that he had to be accountable. Tony, of course, knew that he had a ticket for the movie. The happy sphere in which the family existed was safe and trusting, but the real world wouldn't be so forgiving. Tony wanted his kids to be ready for it.

 

[12강 - Exercise 8번: 협상에서 상대를 이해해야 할 필요성]

Before you even think about the ploys you may encounter in a negotiation and the tactics you may need to use to counter those ploys and to achieve your negotiation objectives, you need to know who and what you're up against. Negotiations are 60% planning and preparation, 20% negotiating, and 20% timing, so making the investment in understanding your worthy adversary, the vendor, is a clear choice. While "adversary" may be a strong term in this era of "win-win," ― no matter how much you spin it ― vendors definitely have competing objectives with contract professionals such as yourself. Vendors want to maximize revenue, and you only want to pay a fair price. Vendors want to minimize their risk under a contract, and you want the vendor to bear a reasonable amount of the risk. Vendors want to be flexible and you want commitments in writing. And that's just a few of the conflicting goals.

 

[12강 - Exercise 9번: 인간의 비타민 C 섭취]

Ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, is an essential component of the human diet. Yet your cat, your dog or your sheep, goat, or pet rat doesn't have the same need to consume it in their food. They can make it themselves, having the necessary enzymes to synthesize it. The reason why it is a vitamin for humans is that, sometime in our primate past, our ancestors lost the enzyme required to synthesize ascorbic acid. This ancestor wasn't careless; it didn't actually lose the enzyme. Rather, there was a mutation in the gene for the particular enzyme, and this change in the gene altered the enzyme's structure, such that it was no longer able to do its job of making ascorbic acid molecules. However, although it could no longer make ascorbic acid molecules, there was no disadvantage to this ancestor because it was already consuming plenty of ascorbic acid in its food. At that particular time, ascorbic acid went from being an optional component of this animal's diet to being an essential component. This was the moment that ascorbic acid became vitamin C.

 

[12강 - Exercise 10번: 범주 지식에 대한 아이들의 사후 확신 편향]

One study taught four- and five-year-olds novel facts about animals, such as that tiger stripes provide "camouflage." Most of the children did not know any of the facts, yet when later asked how long they had known the just-learned information, they often claimed they had always known it or had known for as long as they could remember. Adults can make similar mistakes through hindsight bias, but children err much more frequently. However, even when children fail, they reveal sophisticated assumptions about the nature of knowledge itself. They commit the "knew it all along" effect more often for statements about categories of things than for statements about individuals (Dogs get sick after eating carbamates vs. Last night, this dog got sick after eating carbamates). This category effect reflects an early belief that category knowledge is more likely to be common knowledge. If you think a certain kind of knowledge is more likely to be widely shared, you tend to assume you have always known it as well. [요약문] When children are asked about just-learned information, they tend to assert that they have known it all along, which is especially prominent for category knowledge compared to individual knowledge, reflecting their beliefs that a certain kind of knowledge is more likely to be shared.

 

[12강 - Exercise 11번: 자신의 성격을 이해하는 것의 이점]

A key to social achievement, both personally and professionally, is someone understanding their own personality before they attempt to analyze others'. Assessing personality can help someone learn where they can push themselves and where their absolute limits are. For example, introverts tend to thrive on quiet, alone time. They often need time to process the day and think through upcoming tasks. Knowing this, an introvert can limit their social exposure so they are never overworked when interacting with others. They can schedule times in the day to sit in quiet reflection and gather their thoughts before going back into the world. Extroverts, however, thrive on interacting with others. If they were stuck in the house alone all day, it would likely be a horrible day for them. Even extroverts who are shy in conversations can meet their social needs by going to public places. Sitting in a coffee shop or walking around a mall can simulate the interactive experience and might quell the extrovert's need for other people.

 

[12강 - Exercise 12~14번: 자동차 편승 여행자 Harry]

Carlos was driving home from a day of shopping. As he was coming around the bend of the road, he noticed a little gentleman who had to be in his mid-70's. He was nicely dressed in a yellow shirt and dress pants, but what really stood out was that he was standing on his tiptoes with this right thumb straight up in the air. He had a look of urgency on his face. Carlos stopped and asked him if he needed any help. Carlos thought he might have broken down somewhere. He looked serious and yelled over to Carlos, "Can you take me to the tavern down the road?" Carlos was not expecting that, and he cracked up and told him to get in. Carlos had never picked up a hitchhiker before, but somehow today was different. Carlos asked the hitchhiker to put on his seat belt, and as he fastened the seat belt he said, "Hi! I'm Harry! Don't worry. I'm not a criminal. I just felt like a cold one!" Harry told Carlos a lot about himself. He was originally from New Orleans, he was in good health, and his mother lived to be 99. Harry was quite a pleasant person. He had great energy, and Carlos really enjoyed their brief time together. Harry said that he was unable to drive his vehicle at this time, and that is why he counts on the kindness of strangers. As Carlos pulled into the parking lot, he asked Harry if he was going to sit outside on the deck and watch the Phillies game, and he smiled and nodded. Carlos told him that maybe he and his wife would see Harry in the tavern sometime. Harry looked up at the sky and stared for a few seconds, smiled, and then he let out a big sigh. He said it was such a beautiful day, and he thanked Carlos for making it even better. As he was getting out of the car, he poked his head back in, and in his happy-go-lucky manner, he reminded Carlos that every act of kindness is always returned. Carlos drove away from the tavern, and he smiled thinking about Harry. He looked up at the sky. It really was a beautiful day.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 01번: 개명 사실을 알리는 이메일]

Dear Friends and Family, If you don't recognize the name at the end of this e-mail, don't worry. It's me, Richard Spitznogle ― now I'm Rick Sprint. That's right: Last month, I legally changed my name. As many of you know, my agent has been encouraging me to either adopt a stage name or change my name. To make things less confusing in the long run, I chose the latter. And wouldn't you know, I've already gotten two callbacks this month. I'll be sure to let you know if I end up landing a part in a movie. In the meantime, please keep those e-mails and phone calls coming. The name may be different, but it's still the same old me. Yours, Rick Sprint

 

[Mini Test 01 - 02번: 생기를 북돋우는 하루의 시작]

Today started out like so many other days. Lena awakened in a panic. Sweat poured from her pores and soaked her gown. It clung to her body. From a restless night of sleep, her head felt like it would explode. She stumbled across the room. The light continued to rebound from the darkness. The earth came alive. There were pretty flowers swaying in the wind. They smelled really good. Steam rose up from the pavement outside her window. Together in one place, all those sights and smells reminded her of how much she enjoyed this time of day. It made her feel happy. She watched the sun cast its brilliant rays across the landscape. Its warmth gave her a peaceful feeling. Finally, a new day stretched forth across the horizon. She thought that it would be a good day.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 03번: 행복하게 해주는 일을 하는 것을 삶의 목표로 삼기]

Everything you do is a part of your life. You may not have any bigger plans or purpose in life but you sure have many smaller purposes which you keep building on. If you are happy painting, just do it. You might get bored on some days and that is the time when you stop doing it. You might want to learn golf now. No one is stopping you. Life doesn't have anything destined for you. If you feel happy doing something, just go ahead with it and disassociate yourself with all miseries. These smaller things you do help you make the most of your lives. Do everything that makes you happy; just make sure it falls into the definition of morality. That is your purpose. Can you see it? Being happy is the only thing we go after in our lives. Don't let any hindrances and doubts come between you and that goal. Just pursue it.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 04번: 조직의 규율]

Discipline is an indispensable part of group activities like team sports, math class, or glee club. You certainly couldn't run an army without discipline, or a restaurant, or a cardiology department. Discipline is a wonderful thing. What it provides is an impersonal framework for coordinating the efforts of many unrelated individuals to maximize the integrity of the product ─whether the product is singing on key, providing medical care, or learning algebra. The individual quirks of the participants need to be submerged and kept in line by those in administrative authority. Unfortunately, the rare individual who just won't fly right needs to be disciplined. Not every army recruit, math student, or horn player is going to make the grade. A decent-hearted band leader, math teacher, or department chairperson will do his best to respond to the problem individual with fair-mindedness, but eventually the show must go on.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 05번: 시골 지역에서 권력의 이동이 느린 이유]

The lack of anonymity and distance in the village makes it difficult for people to dissent because they can be easily identified and 'taught a lesson' by the dominant sections. Moreover, the relative power of the dominant sections is much more because they control most avenues of employment, and most resources of all kinds. So the poor have to depend on the dominant sections since there are no alternative sources of employment or support. Given the small population, it is also very difficult to gather large numbers, particularly since efforts towards this cannot be hidden from the powerful and are very quickly suppressed. So, if there is a strong power structure already in place in a village, it is very difficult to remove it. Changes in the sense of shifts in power are thus slow and late to arrive in rural areas because the social order is stronger and more resilient.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 06번: 문제 해결에 도움이 되는 은유]

"The essence of metaphor," say Lakoff and Johnson, "is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of anther." Donald Schon calls this "seeing-as" and draws our attention to the way in which some metaphors ― generative metaphor, in his terminology ― can be essential aids to innovation and problem-solving. He describes a group of product engineers puzzling over a new paintbrush with synthetic bristles. The synthetic paintbrush was not performing well ─ "gloppy" was one word used to describe how it delivered paint ─ and the engineers had tried various strategies to make the new brush's performance comparable to that of natural bristle brushes. The breakthrough came when one engineer reflected, "You know, a paintbrush is a kind of pump!" By seeing a paintbrush as a pump, the engineers moved their focus from the bristles themselves to the channels between the bristles and how the paint flowed through the channels. The paintbrush-as-pump metaphor was generative in the sense that it led to a new way of seeing the problem, and this new framing generated a new and successful solution. This is one very powerful form of human meaning-making.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 07번: 어린 시절의 환경에 따른 스트레스 대응 성향]

Even if you're not a rock star and don't always live on the edge, your own fast or slow tendencies are likely etched deep into your psychology. Animal research has found that tendencies formed during childhood are most likely to surface in times of stress and uncertainty. In studies with Bonnet macaques, for example, adult monkeys respond to stress very differently depending on their childhood environment. After the monkeys were born, researchers had placed them in different environments. Some were raised in stable and predictable environments (their mothers could obtain food every day in the same place in a predictable manner). Other monkeys were placed in fluctuating environments (the researchers kept switching the locations of their food supply, so that the mothers didn't know how, where, or when they were going to find food each day). When the monkeys grew up and were exposed to stress as adults, those reared in a consistent and predictable environment coped well and explored multiple ways to deal with the situation; those reared in fluctuating and unpredictable environments panicked.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 08번: VR, AR, MV에 대한 국가별 친숙도]

The table above shows the percentages of familiarity with the concepts of VR, AR, and the MV by country, in 2022. Despite the global average familiarity with VR being 80%, France had a familiarity rate with VR that was 34 percentage points lower than the global average. India had the highest familiarity with all three technologies, with VR at 89%, AR at 79%, and the MV at 80%, followed by China, which ranked second among the six countries in familiarity with all three technologies. Germany had lower levels of familiarity with all three technologies compared to the global average, and for the familiarity with the MV, the gap between the global average and Germany was more than 30 percentage points. Regarding the global average, familiarity with AR was higher than that with the MV, but in India and South Korea, familiarity with the MV exceeded that with AR. While the United States showed higher familiarity with VR compared to South Korea, South Korea had higher familiarity with both AR and the MV than the United States.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 09번: John Goodricke의 생애]

English astronomer John Goodricke was born in the Netherlands in 1764. He was deaf and mute, probably because of a serious illness he had contracted in childhood. He nevertheless proved to be a bright student. In 1778, he entered Warrington Academy, where he excelled in mathematics, and his interest in astronomy was awakened. After leaving the academy in 1781, he started making his own astronomical observations. In November 1782, he was regularly observing the star known as Algol and soon realized that its brightness varies regularly over a period of a few days. By further observations, he confirmed these periodic variations and accurately estimated the period at a bit less than 2 days and 21 hours. Variations in brightness of Algol, Mira, and other stars had been noted by earlier astronomers, but Goodricke was the first to establish that some variables are truly periodic in nature. Goodricke reported his findings to the Royal Society of London, and the Royal Society awarded him a Copley Medal in 1783.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 12번: 선박 제작 전통의 다양성을 설명하는 요소들]

Most marine fishing requires the use of a craft on which to go to sea, together with nets, hooks and traps to catch the fish. The casual observer normally sees only the craft on the shore or at sea. Fishing craft of the small-scale fishing communities of the world are marked by a vast diversity of design. This is sometimes attributed to the 'insular' nature of many coastal communities that have given rise to culturally conditioned variations in the construction of traditional fishing craft. Cultural influences have certainly played an important role in features such as colours and the shape of the sails. But two major constraining factors also influence the technical design of fishing craft. The first is the availability of appropriate woods or other construction materials such as reeds or bamboo. The second is the set of location-specific physical oceanographic factors, including the structure, the texture, and the slope of the sea bottom and the nature of the surf and waves approaching the coast. It is these factors, rather than cultural insularity, that largely explain the diversity of craft-building traditions.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 13번: 인간의 제한적인 사교성의 문제점]

Humans are clearly gregarious, but they do not associate with one another in ways that embrace all the members of the species in a particular area. Smaller groups are formed which include some members and exclude others. People like to be close to those who are similar to themselves in certain respects, but they prefer to be distant from those who are different; human gregariousness is quite severely limited in its scope. In a word, humans discriminate. They prefer association with others of the same occupation, socioeconomic class or status, religion, language, nationality, race, colour, and so on. This is the source of some of the most serious problems facing human societies. Some limited associations are much more important in this respect than others. If the tool-and-die makers of a city form an exclusive recreational association it creates few, if any, social problems, but if white residents form white-only residential areas or school districts that is a different matter. Man's limited gregariousness is not, in itself, a social problem, but certain kinds of discrimination are sources of conflict and hostility that are dysfunctional for the collectivity.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 14번: 오도하는 아름다운 감각]

In our unrooted and industrialized world, beauty can be a deceiver. We often isolate our senses from the consequences of our actions, creating bubbles of pleasing experience built on ugliness elsewhere that might give us pause if we could sense it directly. This is most obvious with international trade. The beautiful objects and foods in our lives sometimes come from places of exploitation. Even soundscapes can be misleading. In the outer suburbs, gentle sounds of insects and birdsong in trees soothe us. Yet this experience is possible only because of the traffic-filled highway that brings us and our goods to sonic oases, and the noise of mines and factories needed to build the extensive infrastructure networks that enable and sustain low-density suburbia. In seeking sensory calm and connection to other species, we can paradoxically increase the sum of human noise in the world. The dislocating power of fossil fuels drives much of this separation between our senses and the consequences of our actions.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 15번: 호의를 베푼 사람에 대한 경계선 설정]

When you try to initiate a conversation about boundaries with someone who has done or is doing you a favor, there's a good chance that person will try to make you feel really guilty. They might be seeing you as ungrateful, selfish, or a "user." Please remember, the way other people choose to respond to your clear, kind boundary is not your business. If you appreciate the favor, have truly repaid it in the way you both agreed to, and believe the favor grantor is dangling strings you never would have agreed to, set the boundary. In the best-case scenario, they'll understand they've overstepped and it won't continue to happen. In the likely scenario, they'll complain about it, but will reluctantly acquiesce ─ and you might have to actively smooth things over for a while. In the worst-case scenario, they're furious at your selfishness, sever the relationship (likely temporarily), and you will never lean on them again for a favor. (Would you really want to anyway?) Only you can decide how much to push back for the sake of your mental health and relationship.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 16번: 상당한 투자에 근거하는 멀티미디어 제품 보호의 필요성]

Multimedia products, irrespective of whether they are original or not, require significant investments for their production. Sometimes the amount of money and effort put into the design, accumulation of the various elements and realisation of a multimedia product (which is not original) can be extremely substantial and can even surpass those for the creation of an original work. The possibility of copying these works in perfect quality at a fraction of the original cost and the marketing of similar or identical products clearly jeopardises the investment put into this domain and greatly discourages future projects in the area. The multimedia industry in this respect runs an important risk that is similar to the one the database industry was confronted with some years ago. Therefore, there is a need for protection even for those multimedia products that do not come under the umbrella of copyright. This need is not based on their creativity or the fact that they offer society a new expression of a concept, but rather on the substantial investment in them.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 17번: 뉴스 발행사의 독자 구성과 선호도 파악]

Although many news publishers subscribe to at least one source of online audience measurement, they also exhibit uncertainty about how best to incorporate the data into editorial decisions. This uncertainty stems from the fact that even sophisticated measures of audience behavior paint an incomplete portrait of who the audience is and what they want from news media. For example, a digital news site now can observe how its online audience interacts with its content, but remains limited when it comes to its understanding why they spent time with some stories but not others. To address this gap, news organizations sometimes complement these online metrics with more qualitative means of audience research, such as surveys and focus groups. However, these methods suffer from limitations of their own: Even if a news organization surveys a sample of its subscribers about their motivations for subscribing, they cannot know, with certainty, how representative those responses are of the rest of their audience. News publishers simply lack the time and resources to identify the exact composition and preferences of all their readers.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 18번: 도로를 줄이는 것의 효과]

As for the question of what happens to all the cars once a highway is replaced with a boulevard, evidence shows time and again that removing highways actually reduces the number of cars on the road. After the West Side Highway in New York was replaced, traffic in that section of Manhattan dropped from 140,000 to 95,000 vehicles per day. Many drivers switched to faster roads in New Jersey, and as New York City invested more in public transportation, some commuters switched their daily patterns to ride subways and buses. Traffic is one of the best-known examples of induced demand; the more roads, the more people will use them. If the ultimate goal is to curb driving in a city and to move people away from unsustainable transportation sources, reducing the space allotted to cars is a good way to start.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 19번: 창의력과 상상력]

Creativity does not have to be connected to imagination. While imagination is characterized by independent, outside-the-box thinking, creativity is responding to a problem with the tools and knowledge in existence. It is thinking within the box. The existing knowledge base, without using any imagination, can easily lead in the direction of modest incremental developments in existing products or services. One can easily observe this progression in the example of typewriters. In the beginning, typewriters were bulky and their keyboards were not standardized. So the next step was the standardization of the keyboard. The heavy and difficult to move typewriter gave way to the portable typewriter. But it was still a manual device. The next steps were the slow and incremental development of electric typewriters and then the development of the modern personal computer. The computer made the typewriter obsolete, as computers offered all the features that typewriters offered as well as many improvements. Thus, a radical innovation took over an incrementalized product.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 20번: 초기 인류와 음악]

Regardless of when the music cells first appeared, the notion that such cells exist raises the possibility that the human brain evolved to engage in music. Modern humans (Homo sapiens) have existed for around 300,000 years. The oldest known musical instruments are flutes made from bones, discovered in southwestern Germany dating to 40,000 years ago. It has been suggested that Neanderthals may also have engaged in music, including instrumental music. Indeed, a fragment of a cave bear bone dated to 43,000 years ago was discovered in a Neanderthal cave in Slovenia with regular holes on one side of the bone. Whether this bone was indeed a flute remains the subject of substantial debate. On the one hand, data from a study of the bone suggest that the holes were generated by scavenging spotted hyenas. However, the arrangement of the holes, the lack of damage on the other side of the bone, and the finding that models of the bone when played generate a diatonic scale raise doubts that the holes were made by predators or scavengers. So we may not be the only hominids to have engaged in early forms of music.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 21번: 자기 참조적 사회 인지]

Self-referent social cognitions, such as optimism and pessimism, matter in coping with parental stress. Individuals who are consistently pessimistic accumulate effects of stress in a downward spiral of events, thoughts, emotions, and physiological states. They are more likely to create stressful circumstances for themselves and others, and to lose resources by causing others to respond negatively to them and by making poor decisions that expose them to more stressors. In stark contrast is the process of coping with stress among those who are largely optimistic in their outlooks. These individuals manage to conserve resources and minimize exposure to new stressors, resulting in an upward spiral of coping. For example, one study of parents of children with cancer found that mothers and fathers who did not expect a good outcome were highly distressed. In contrast, those parents who remained optimistic about possible outcomes were more protected against stress, even in often dire circumstances over which the parents had little control.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 22번: 약용 식물의 가치와 그것의 초자연적 의미]

From the earliest times, medicinal plants have been crucial in sustaining the health and the well-being of mankind. Flaxseed, for example, provided its harvesters with a nutritious food oil, fuel, a cosmetic balm for the skin, and fiber to make fabric. At the same time, it was used to treat conditions such as bronchitis, respiratory congestion, and a number of digestive problems. Given the life-enhancing benefits that this and so many other plants offered, it is hardly surprising that most cultures believed them to have magical as well as medicinal abilities. It is reasonable to assume that for tens of thousands of years herbs were probably used as much for their ritual magical powers as for their medicinal qualities. A 60,000-year-old burial site uncovered in Iraq, for instance, was found to contain eight different medicinal plants, including ephedra. The inclusion of the plants in the tomb suggests they had supernatural significance as well as medicinal value.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 23번: 고령자의 새로운 기술 채택]

As we age, the way in which our bodies function begins to change and the use of technology can become increasingly difficult. This means that age-related physical impairments or cognitive conditions affect how older adults use computers and mobile devices. Furthermore, socioeconomic resources can also play a role. For example, a retiree may not have the financial means to afford an internet connection. There may also be personal barriers to overcome. For instance, people get anxious when faced with technical challenges. For older people, technological change does not only mean learning something new, but also learning under more difficult cognitive conditions. This means that seniors need more time to learn and change their behaviour. In addition, there is a lack of motivation to deal with new technology, as some people may tell themselves "It is not worth it at my age." After retirement, people are no longer obliged to learn new technologies for their job; instead, they can choose to voluntarily use technology. Therefore, a technology must demonstrate a clear benefit (added value compared to traditional services, such as buying a train ticket at the counter) in order for them to adopt the new technology (e.g. to buy a train ticket via an app). [요약문] A variety of factors can cause aging adults to have difficulty in using new technology, so without a clear beneficial upside, they will not embrace it.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 24~25번: 기후 변화에 대한 스토리 접근법의 효과]

When it comes to climate change, there is a glaring disconnect between what we know is happening and what we seem able or willing to do about it. Longtime climate campaigner George Marshall explored this disparity in his excellent and aptly titled book Don't Even Think About It. He noted how the human brain is perfectly capable of simultaneously understanding and ignoring abstract threats. When consequences seem distant or gradual, the rational part of our mind simply files them away for future reference and rarely triggers the more instinctive, emotional pathways associated with quick action. (We do better responding to physical threats, such as spear thrusts and charging lions, the sorts of immediate problems that our ancestors evolved with.) Marshall's book ends with a laundry list of strategies for bridging that mental gap, many of which rely on something else the human brain is known for: storytelling. When complex ideas are attached to a narrative, they immediately become more relevant. There is a reason why Plato framed so many of his philosophical dialogues around the drama of the trial of Socrates, and why Carl Sagan chose to teach astrophysics from the glowing deck of an imaginary spaceship. Stories engage parts of the brain left untouched by facts alone, releasing chemicals that demonstrably change the way we think, feel, and remember. Learning about climate change is no different, and much of how we understand and act upon it will ultimately boil down to stories ─ those we tell, and, in another sense, those that it tells to us.

 

[Mini Test 01 - 26~28번: 휴식의 중요성]

When Dana Torres was training for the Olympics with her then coach Carrie Richards, she learned her lesson the hard way. She not only learned that comparing herself with other swimmers, especially much younger swimmers, gets in the way of training and swimming her best, but also that becoming unnecessarily focused on what she can't control (i.e., another swimmer's performance or training style) can drag her down. Around the time she started her journey for the Olympics, she had an active and rather charged rivalry with swimmer Jenny Thompson. They had been teammates and friends, but when Dana moved to Stanford to train with Carrie Richards and the rest of the team, hoping to make the Olympic training camp and trials, she got caught up in a competition that was incredibly stressful. She also found herself comparing her workout with what the twenty-year-olds were doing in the pool and at the gym. Looking at the young trainees she thought, "If I don't do what they're doing, how am I going to make the team? If I don't swim as long, I'll never get better results." For her, not winning was never an option. But she was confused as to what to do, how to adapt. It was Carrie who told her to back off. "You need to rest, do you understand that?" she said to Dana one day after practice. It was Friday and Dana was exhausted. She kind of nodded, hoping Carrie would just stop talking to her. "Really, you need to rest. For real. I don't want you to do one thing this weekend. Not even one." Through her glare, Dana knew Carrie was serious and meant every word. What she was saying was true. So that weekend, against every grain in her body, she rested. She resisted the urge to do a spin class, run - or swim. And by the end of the weekend, Dana actually felt better than she had in months. That Monday she swam one of the best practices of her life. Dana had learned her lesson: she needed to let her body recover when it needed to.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 01번: Sales Manager 자리로의 승진 요청]

Dear Ms. Adams, I have been devotedly working at our company for the past 5 years as a sales executive. During this time, I've worked passionately and achieved impressive sales outcomes. I even received the employee of the year award in 2022. Since I completed my MBA degree in December 2021, my dedication to my work and to our company has only increased. I always try hard to come up with innovative solutions to any problem we encounter. With all my knowledge, experience, and know-how here at Mass Corporation, I kindly request you to consider promoting me to the position of Sales Manager. I completely understand the responsibilities and I know that I will excel in this role in our company. I would greatly appreciate a positive response. Regards, Ben Wilson

 

[Mini Test 02 - 02번: 미국에서 적응하고 있는 이민자 아이]

"RAH-vee?" Mrs. Beam says as I drop my card into the basket. My heart is pounding. Have I done something wrong? Can Mrs. Beam not read what I've written on my card because of my poor handwriting? Now all my other failures come flooding back like a giant wave. My accent, my math, my English, my manners.... "It's nice to see you," says Mrs. Beam. "We missed you yesterday." "You did?" I ask. "Don't sound so surprised." She laughs. "I wanted to tell you how much I enjoyed the cookies your mother made." "Mrs. Beam," I say softly, my voice quivering a little, "my name is not RAH-vee. It's pronounced rah-VEE." She looks at me and smiles. "I'm glad you told me, rah-VEE. Was that better?" she asks. I nod my head and smile back at her. As I walk back to my seat, I feel things are finally looking up for me in America. I'm starting to believe just maybe, I can find my place in this new country.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 03번: 젊은 사람들이 어울려 놀 수 있는 공공장소의 필요성]

The presence of a group of young people 'hanging out' typically conjures suspicions of inappropriate and illicit behavior by adults. Public settings are often the preferred location for these informal gatherings, yet business owners, city officials, and other adults see this activity as a misuse of the space and regularly impose policy and design changes to restrict the behavior. From noise devices to removing seating, the message youth receive is one of exclusion. Instead, opportunities for young people to gather with their friends and meet new people are an important developmental need. When they cannot find a public place, or are excluded from the ones available, youth retreat to less visible areas for their socializing activities. These removed places are more likely to spur more negative behaviors because they lack informal supervision found on places like malls, cafes, and city streets. A societal understanding and acceptance of youth hanging out in public places is essential.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 04번: 자연의 소리에 대한 인식 상실]

The extinction of sensory diversity has many causes: technologies that deliver poisons; ever-rising carbon dioxide levels; economies that force the costs of production onto other people and other species, the "externalities" of business; and ever-expanding human appetites and numbers that shoulder out other species. All these social and economic factors exist in a culture of inattention and lack of appreciation. Our ears are directed inward, to the chatter of our own species. Introductions to the sounds of the thousands of species that live in our neighborhoods have no place in most school curricula. We generally regard human language and music as outside nature, disconnected from the voices of others. When a concert starts, we close the door to the outside world. Books and software that teach us "foreign" languages include only the voices of other humans. Public monuments to sound are rare and honor a handful of canonical human composers, not the sonic history of the living Earth.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 05번: 현실적인 기대치 설정의 중요성]

A tough runner isn't one who is blind with ambition or confidence, but one who can accurately assess the demands and the situation. The magic is in aligning actual and expected demands. When our assessment of our capabilities is out of sync with the demands, we get the schoolchildren version of performance: starting a project with reckless confidence, only to look up and realize the work it involves. When such a mismatch exists, we're more likely to spiral toward doubts and insecurities, and to ultimately abandon our pursuit. When actual and expected demands align, we're able to pace to perfection, or outside of the athletic realm, perform up to our current capabilities. It's why experienced writers don't go into their first draft expecting perfection. They understand it's going to be messy, and often not that good. Contrary to old-school toughness wisdom, a touch of realistic doubt keeps us on track and makes it more likely that we will persist.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 06번: 사회적 곤충 군집에서의 작업 분할]

Given the extensive behavioral repertoire of most social insect colonies, it would be easy to dismiss task partitioning as a relatively unique organizational principle limited primarily to foraging, with a few other examples found in nest building and waste management. To do this would be to dramatically underestimate the importance of task partitioning in those species that perform it. Foraging is a critical task within any social insect colony and it typically involves a relatively high proportion of workers. In the leaf-cutting ant Atta colombica, the vast majority of workers working outside the nest are either involved with foraging or with waste management, both of which involve task partitioning. Many workers inside the nest are involved with processing leaves to incorporate into the fungus gardens, which also involves task partitioning. Overall, a large proportion of the total workforce may be involved in partitioned tasks, despite these tasks being only a small subset of the total colony task repertoire.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 07번: 상대방의 관점을 이해하지 못하는 실수]

Our personal perception of reality is distorted in many ways, so in communication between two people it is two individual realities that are distorted in different ways trying to make sense of each other. And on top of that, we tend to understand words, concepts, ideas, feelings from our own standpoint. You imagine that this person's worldview is similar to yours. He says that what his drink tastes like is a lychee milkshake. He meant that it tastes bad because he hates lychee, but you think he loves his drink because you love lychee. And this is just an example of a benign misunderstanding due to lack of perspective taking, the ability to get into somebody else's head. Indeed, our poor ability to imagine what is going on inside someone's mind, which typically stands in striking discrepancy with our confidence in our ability to do so, makes human communication a risky business.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 08번: 비디오 게임을 하는 8개국 성인의 비율]

The graph above shows the percentages of adults in eight selected countries who played video games in 2022, including how much playing was on smartphones. The U.A.E., Indonesia, China and India had a higher percentage of adult video gamers than Spain, the U.S., the U.K., and Japan. The U.A.E. had the highest percentage of adult video gamers, with about three-fourths among adults playing on their smartphones. The percentage of adults in Indonesia who played games on their smartphones was more than double that in the U.K. While the percentage of occasional gamers in China was smaller than that in India, the percentage of frequent gamers in China was the highest among all the selected countries. Among the countries, Japan had the lowest engagement rate for gaming among adults, but the percentage of smartphone gamers in Japan was higher than that in the U.K. and Spain.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 09번: Willebrord Snell의 생애]

Willebrord Snell was born in the city of Leiden in the Netherlands. He originally attended the University of Leiden as a law student, but after presenting some lectures in mathematics at the university, he switched to his famous father's profession of mathematics. He contributed to the fields of astronomy and navigation as well as mathematics and other areas of science. In 1621, he discovered the basic law of refraction, that is, the bending of light rays that occurs when a light ray changes its speed as it travels from one medium to another of a different density. Although he only lived to be forty-six years of age, he made many contributions to science and mathematics, as well as publishing five books. He improved the work of the ancient scientist Eratosthenes by using a method of measuring the size of Earth by triangulation, which became the basis for the modern science of geodesy. He also improved Archimedes' method of estimating pi.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 12번: 유기농 식품 섭취의 건강상 이점]

The health benefits associated with the consumption of organic food can vary. In general, your skin's condition will show improvement as your skin absorbs the higher doses of antioxidants found in organic food. Antioxidants are found in both organic and commercially produced food, but the level of antioxidants found in organic products is much higher as it has not been altered by farming chemicals. Other reported health benefits of eating more organic food include a higher level of energy, and higher alertness along with healthier looking skin, hair and nails. But the benefits don't end there. If you really think about it, you will end up saving money on cosmetics and other beauty products trying to correct problems associated with unhealthy skin, hair and nails. There are also several studies and reports mentioning that going organic, or eating more organic food in your diet can better protect you from the risk of getting breast cancer. That's another very valid reason justifying starting a diet of organic food.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 13번: 로마 제국 말기의 그리스어 학습]

One factor that contributed to the decline in scientific endeavor during the last days of the Roman Empire was the diminishing knowledge of the Greek language. The motivation to learn a second language decreases as a function of economic dominance. In particular, members of non-dominant groups are eager to learn a language in addition to their mother tongue, in order to improve their life circumstances and (in the case of scientists) to enlarge their audience. As a consequence, the 'universal language' of science has always closely followed the shifts in economic dominance. Because the Romans dominated the other nations, it became increasingly unnecessary to study languages other than Latin, whereas more and more individuals became inclined to learn Latin as a second language, rather than Greek. As a result, a language barrier emerged between the Romans and Greek science. This was partly alleviated by an increased availability of Latin translations, but translations did not conserve the full richness of the Greek legacy. Only the works that were thought to be of interest to the Romans made it into Latin and were preserved.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 14번: 시간에 대한 우리의 관념]

It is hardly surprising that we struggle with the notion of how long we will be here. At first, life seems quite endless. At seven, it feels like an eternity till Christmas. At eleven, it is almost impossible to imagine what it might be like to be twenty-two. At twenty-two, thirty feels absurdly remote. Time does us a disservice in seeming so long, and yet turning out to be so resolutely short. Typically, people only become gripped by the idea of mortality at a few select points in their lives. Turning forty or fifty can bring a sudden reversal of perspective. We panic or become morose. We buy a new car or take up a musical instrument. However, what this really indicates is a dramatic failure of anticipation. The extraordinary aspect is not that we're dying, but that the reality of the nature of existence did not get fixed firmly enough in our brains at an earlier, more appropriate, moment. A mid-life crisis is not a legitimate awakening; it's a sign of being shamefully ill-prepared.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 15번: 효과적인 정보 제공]

The never-ending flood of facts and data in our contemporary world has caused a paradigm shift in how we relate to information. Whereas at one time information was community-based, slow to retrieve, and often the domain of experts, information is now global, instantaneous, and often in the public domain. We now want information and content in our own hands and on our own terms. We maintain an underlying belief that it is our fundamental right to have access to well-structured and organized information. As a result, information design is exploding as organizations and individuals scramble to manage an overwhelming quantity of content. Understanding the most effective ways to inform is now a principal concern. According to professor of information design Dino Karabeg, "Informing can make the difference between the technologically advanced culture which wanders aimlessly and often destructively, and a culture with vision and direction."

 

[Mini Test 02 - 16번: 상호 의존적 관계의 특성]

Co-dependency in adults exists when two psychologically dependent people form a relationship with each other for the unconscious purpose of completing their early bonding processes. Their co-dependent relationship appears to be made up of two half-persons attempting to create one whole person. Because both partners lacked secure bonding in early childhood, neither is free to feel or act independently of the other, so they stick together like glue. The focus is always on the other person, not on oneself. Each hopes the other person will provide what he or she never got in early childhood: intimacy and secure bonding. Their relationship cannot grow, because this goal is never conscious or spoken. As a result, each looks to the other to make the necessary growth happen. When it doesn't, the partners try to control each other and expect the other person to always behave in certain ways to bring them closer together. Because each one is focused on the other person, both are able to avoid looking at themselves and focusing on their self-development. In co-dependent relationships, the focus is always outward, not inward.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 17번: 인간 중심주의에 대한 타격]

Despite his tarnished reputation among neuroscientists, Sigmund Freud was right about many things. Looking back through the history of science, he identified three 'strikes' against the perceived self-importance of the human species, each marking a major scientific advance that was strongly resisted at the time. The first was by Copernicus, who showed with his heliocentric theory that the Earth rotates around the sun, and not the other way around. With this dawned the realisation that we are not at the centre of the universe; we are just a speck somewhere out there in the vastness, a pale blue dot suspended in the abyss. Next came Darwin, who revealed that we share common ancestry with all other living things, a realisation that is - astonishingly - still resisted in some parts of the world even today. Immodestly, Freud's third strike against human exceptionalism was his own theory of the unconscious mind, which challenged the idea that our mental lives are under our conscious, rational control. While he may have been off target in the details, Freud was absolutely right to point out that a naturalistic explanation of mind and consciousness would be a further, and perhaps final, dethronement of humankind.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 18번: 인간의 지식이 확장되는 방식]

The sense of familiarity experienced at the sparking of a memory provides a connection between a present experience and those believed to have been previously undergone, but this by itself can provide only the most basic sort of knowledge, a kind likely shared with a wide range of animal life. Human knowledge amounts to more than an individual or even a shared past: we seek out new environments and dimensions for our understanding and try to bring the foreign and alien within our purview. One of the most basic ways in which the feeling of familiarity experienced in memory is extended over new frontiers is through the use of metaphor. Metaphors pick up on similarities and create connections by comparing lesser known phenomena with already established experiences. They play a substantial role in the narrative character of knowledge by generating imaginative associations that bring the unknown within the sphere of existing understanding.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 19번: 한계 가치]

There is an important difference between the marginal and the total value associated with market prices or the willingness of consumers to pay in markets. Economists regard the prices that people are willing to pay as indicators of the marginal value ― the value they place on the last unit purchased. Consider what a homeowner would be willing to pay for residential water in a given month. He might be willing to pay a huge sum for the privilege of consuming the first ten cubic feet, because doing without them would deprive him of even the most fundamental (and valuable) uses of water for that month: drinking water, the occasional shower, etc. The next ten cubic feet would probably not be worth quite as much. They would allow him additional opportunities to fill a glass from the faucet, and an extra shower or two, but these would not be as critical to him (or to the people with whom he associates!) as the first ten cubic feet. Thus the marginal value of water ― the amount one is willing to pay for each successive increment ― falls steadily.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 20번: 자기 향상에서 인간 지능과 기계 지능의 구별]

Self-improvement is a point of differentiation between human and machine intelligence. Humans have strived for it over millennia. We respect our scholars, teachers, and guides because they help us learn and improve ourselves in many ways, including in our ability to exercise our mental faculty. This improvement, an increase in our mental ability, is a slow process for us ─ and also an indirect one. We learn through action, through the direct perception or input of knowledge. We cannot simply "copy" someone else's intelligence to add it to our own. In fact, we have sayings such as "some things can only be learned through experience." Machine intelligence is not restricted to this form of self-improvement. In fact, machine intelligence can create a million copies of itself, manipulate each such representation, test outcomes, and then discard inferior changes. This is direct and immediate manipulation of intelligence with no cost or consequence to the progenitor. As long as humans are limited solely to our biological intelligence, self-improvement with this level of rapidity or directness will always be impossible.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 21번: 관용의 의미 변질]

Anyone reading policy documents, mission statements, school textbooks and speeches made by politicians and policymakers is likely to be struck by the frequency with which the term 'tolerance' is celebrated. It is difficult to encounter any significant acclaim for intolerance. However, on closer inspection it becomes evident that the meaning of this term has radically altered, mutating into a superficial signifier of acceptance and affirmation. In official documents and school texts, tolerance is used as a desirable character trait rather than as a way of managing conflicting beliefs and behaviour. So one can be tolerant without any reference to a set of beliefs or opinions. Moreover, the idea that tolerance means not interfering with, or attempting to suppress, beliefs that contradict one's own sentiments has given way to the idea that tolerance involves not judging other people and their views. Instead of serving as a way of responding to differences of views, tolerance has become a way of not taking them seriously.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 22번: 생물학적 욕구의 보류]

We have hidden goals ─ goals we are not attending to consciously ─ that move us to do things and cause all sorts of feelings. Strong biological needs function as hidden goals. An astronaut who chooses to spend a year in space without any human contact may experience great sadness due to hidden goals of affiliation that she has consciously decided to put on hold. This example lets us see that a single goal can be present to our conscious minds at one time but hidden from us at another. The astronaut may have been very much aware of the goal of forming close relationships with other people while she was dating in college. But when she decides to concentrate on space exploration for a while, she turns her focus away from relationships, not seeing it as an important goal at the moment. And yet the goal of relationships may still be there, hidden but powerful enough to cause an emotional reaction to isolation. We could think of conscious attention as a flashlight with limited reach: it illuminates some of our goals and brings them to conscious awareness, but many of them remain in the dark until we change our focus.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 23번: 말하는 목소리와 노래하는 목소리의 관계]

Although the singing voice might be thought of as an extension to or development of the speaking voice, the experience of actors and singers suggests that the two modes of vocal delivery remain independent. Many classical singers refrain from talking for long periods before a difficult performance, because they are sensitive to the adverse effects of speaking. The ubiquitous tool of our time, the telephone, has long been known as the creator of many vocal problems because we do not speak on the phone as we would face to face. Apparently, we overcompensate for the lack of visual communication by exaggerating certain speech habits. This seems to be in line with the ideas of Lucie Manen when she lamented the lack of facial and emotional gestures when singers perform in front of a microphone without a visible audience. Singing has an effect on the speaking voice, and vice versa; most people who talk immediately after singing will discover that their speaking voice will have raised itself a few pitches above the norm. Singers who train insufficiently in speaking may suffer from similar laryngeal problems to actors unaccustomed to singing. [요약문] The singing voice and the speaking voice, which have distinct modes of vocal delivery, mutually influence each other, with the absence of visual cues leading to exaggerated speech habits and potential vocal problems.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 24~25번: 상황에 따라 변화해 온 감정 (체계)]

Like many other animals, we benefit from a rapid, automatic response system which keeps us out of trouble. Imagine walking in a forest when a wolf leaps out. Information about the situation is promptly forwarded to certain parts of the brain, which swiftly screen it, initiate a response, and you leap back. Whatever you were thinking before is suppressed and you give your full attention to the perceived threat. At the same time, substances are released in your body which, amongst other things, make your heart beat faster in readiness for further action. In these circumstances, you would probably call the sensation fear. Others might be alerted to the danger by your posture, involuntary cry and facial expression. This emotional system probably evolved because of its survival value. But, in humans, the information is also sent to other parts of the brain, where it is reflected upon at a more leisurely pace. If you deduce that you are safe because the wolf's path is blocked, the emotional system is informed, and you relax a little and experience a spreading feeling of relief. Some people have argued that some of the other emotions which support our welfare may have evolved similarly. For instance, our ancestors also had a vested interest in supportive, personal relationships because the welfare of hunter-gatherers depended on them. Threats to these relationships may have produced feelings of anxiety, embarrassment, shame or guilt. On the other hand, support for them may have led to feelings of thankfulness.

 

[Mini Test 02 - 26~28번: 신념과 실제의 변화]

Steve was giving a motivational seminar to a utility company, and during one of the breaks, a man who looked to be in his sixties came up to him. "I'm Jake. My problem," he said, "is that I never seem to finish anything. I'm always starting things ─this project and that, but I never finish. I'm always off on to something else before anything is completed." He then asked whether Steve could give him some affirmations or positive statements that might alter his belief system. Steve felt Jake correctly saw the problem as being one of belief. He thought that because Jake did not believe he was a good finisher, he did not finish anything; so he wanted a magical word or phrase to repeat to himself that would brainwash him into being different. "Do you think affirmations are what you need?" Steve asked Jake. "If you had to learn how to use a computer, could you do it by sitting on your bed and repeating the affirmation, 'I know how to use a computer. I am great at using computers. I am a wizard on a computer'?" Jake admitted that affirmations would probably have no effect on his ability to use a computer. "The best way to change your belief system is to change the truth about you," Steve said. "We believe the truth faster than we believe false affirmations. To believe that you are a good finisher, you must begin by building a track record of finished tasks." Jake followed Steve's suggestions with great enthusiasm. He bought a notebook and at the top of the first page he wrote, "Things I've Finished." Each day, he made a point of setting small goals and finishing them. Whereas in the past he would be sweeping his front walk and leave it unfinished when the phone rang, now he'd let the phone ring so he could finish the job and record it in his notebook. The more things he wrote down, the more confident he became that he was truly becoming a finisher. And he had a notebook to prove it.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 01번: 도서관 저녁 시간 운영 중단]

Dear Mr. Andersen, For many residents in the town of Wolfville, strolling downtown to the library in the evening and enjoying some time in the cool, quiet reading room has been a treat many of us enjoy. However, I recently learned that the library board has decided to eliminate the evening hours this summer, which is quite disappointing. Everyone understands the difficult economy, but I have to believe there were alternatives to eliminating this much-appreciated pleasure; in my experience there were nights when every seat was taken. I ask the board to reconsider their decision and find a better solution that accommodates the needs of the community. I think closing the library early on Saturday or even closing it completely on a weekday would be a possible solution. I look forward to hearing from you soon. Sincerely, Randolph Pennington

 

[Mini Test 03 - 02번: 눈 덮인 세상이 보여 준 환희]

I was in the middle of a particularly cheerless February, and even though I had gone through this feeling many times before and knew it would eventually pass, I had gotten to the point where I was beginning to believe it would never get better. I can remember thinking as I went to sleep that night that this time I would be stuck forever in winter. When I woke up there was an unsettling silence all over the house. I walked over to the front door and opened it. Outside, the world had remade itself into the most sparkling, beautiful, and inviting place imaginable. A late-night snowstorm had covered everything with white. The sun was up and shining brightly; everywhere I looked the snow was dancing with light. Suddenly all the dark clouds in my mind were gone and I started laughing in delight. Winter, the monster eating my soul, had pulled a fast one and slipped in a day of incredible purity and beauty just to remind me of the possibilities in life.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 03번: 유전자 분야에 관한 의사의 소양]

Physicians work hard to serve the best interests of their patients. "Do no harm" is the code they live by. Presently there is a strong feeling among many physicians that genetic and genomic information is harmful and thus should not be used in managing the health of healthy people. Moreover, most physicians are not trained to understand this information. Ironically, many of them are very comfortable discussing family history with their patients but are uncomfortable talking about genomics. The technologies, applications, and value of genetics and genome sequencing must be part of medical school education and continuing medical education, given how rapidly the field is changing. Most importantly, patients are truly eager for this information. Various genetic information companies have well over 900,000 people who already have contributed samples. Many of these people approach their physicians asking for help in interpreting the meaning of their results. It is essential that doctors be familiar with this subject area.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 04번: 재매개와 스토리텔링]

For well over 100 years, audiences have looked into rectangular screens, ignoring everything peripheral to the edges of the frame. But in recent times, the edges of the screen have been removed. Narratives now have the potential to play out anywhere we can crane our necks to glance or stare. Like in life, any place we can walk to or journey toward becomes the screen for a story. This breakthrough in storytelling is changing the way audiences engage with the moving image as well as the ways we create content ─ and this is only just the beginning. Virtual Reality (VR) is one of the latest developments in the remediation process that has come to define digital media. According to theorists Bolter and Grusin, this process of remediation has become integral to the ongoing progress of media, which is now constantly commenting on, reproducing, and eventually replacing itself.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 05번: 감각을 통한 경험]

If someone flashes a camera bulb in your face, others might see you blink, wince and throw your arms up reflexively in response, but they will not, and cannot, see the after-image that occupies your visual field for a few moments. If you form a mental image of the Eiffel Tower, or think of the way your favorite song goes, others will be totally unable to see that image or hear that song, however vivid the images are and however close they get their eyes and ears to your skull. Performing brain surgery on you won't give them access either ─ it's not as if they'll see a little picture of the Eiffel Tower inscribed in your grey matter or hear music coming from your hypothalamus. Nor can others directly experience what you experience as you eat a cheeseburger. Your sensations of the taste, texture, smell and look of the thing are available only to you; they can have similar experiences, should they eat their own burgers, but their experiences would then be theirs, not yours.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 06번: 미국 노인이 겪는 여러 문제]

Ten percent of the total number of people in the American population living below the poverty line are over the age of 65, with many living on an average social security pension of $12,500 a year with no other source of income. Forty-two percent of all Americans 65 and older suffer from disabilities that affect their daily functioning. As the number of older Americans grows, so does the recognition that many older Americans have serious social, emotional, health and financial problems that make aging a joyless and sometimes anxious and depressing experience. Many older adults with social and emotional problems have conditions that go undiagnosed and untreated because underlying symptoms of anxiety and depression are thought to be physical in nature, and health and mental health professionals frequently believe that older adults are neither motivated for therapy nor find it an appropriate treatment. This often leaves many older adults trying to cope with serious emotional problems without adequate help.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 07번: 진로 평가의 이점]

In my experience, assessments provide information that is confirmatory ─ that is, they confirm patterns of which you are already aware. In my own life, these assessments have reinforced the career path I have chosen and have helped give me confidence in my next step. For example, career assessments usually paint a similar picture of me; they illustrate that I am a strong fit for fields like consulting, psychology, and business, where I can problem-solve one-on-one with people and teams. Similarly, personality-focused assessments tell me that I prefer people to things, and rely on feelings and intuition more often than data and facts. Why do such results matter? Quite simply, when you find a career that leverages your dominant personality traits, preferences, and career interests, work is not a chore or bother, rather it feels natural and effortless. Assessments also give you a confidence boost by reinforcing what you may have long suspected, but for which you did not necessarily have outside validation.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 08번: 자율 주행차의 안전성에 관한 의견]

The above graph shows the percentages from 2017 to 2020 of consumers in four different countries who thought self-driving vehicles would not be safe. In 2017, the percentage of consumers who thought self-driving vehicles would not be safe was highest in South Korea at 81%, followed by the U.S. at 74% and Germany at 72%. Concern for the safety of self-driving vehicles was highest in 2017 for each of the four countries, and it showed a steady decrease in all of them from 2018 to 2020. In 2020, among the four countries India had the highest percentage of consumers who did not consider self-driving vehicles to be safe at 58%. In Germany, the percentage of consumers who thought self-driving vehicles would not be safe was the same in 2018 and 2020. The difference between the percentage points of consumers who thought self-driving vehicles would not be safe in 2017 and in 2020 was the smallest in India.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 09번: 최초의 아시아계 할리우드 배우 Anna May Wong]

Anna May Wong is still considered Hollywood's first-ever Asian American movie star. She was born on January 3, 1905 in Los Angeles. Her parents owned a laundromat near the city's Chinatown neighborhood, and while she and her seven brothers and sisters frequently helped out at the family business, from a young age she dreamed of starring in the movies she saw filmed all over town. After dropping out of high school for her career, the star earned her first leading role in the silent film The Toll of the Sea. As they say in the business, it was her big break. Though the actress did get to live out her dream of being a movie star, it was still America in the early 20th century. Roles were few and far between for Asian actresses and those that did exist were steeped in racial stereotypes. With all this Wong grew frustrated with the U.S. and moved to Berlin in 1928. It was in Europe that she found global success in movies filmed in France, Germany, and England, according to Time. A year before her death, she was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 12번: 소모임의 문화적 특성]

While all sites of interaction inform us of the structure of social life, we find this most clearly when individuals have a commitment to a civil consciousness. Tiny publics, grounded in interaction, combine group culture with attention to civic engagement. A tiny public is a group with a recognizable interaction order and a local culture that hopes to shape society. In other words tiny publics, such as Chicago Seniors Together, have both an internal order and a communal face that is outward-looking: they are Janus-faced and must negotiate the dilemmas of appealing to multiple audiences. These communities may have small memberships, but they address a broader politics, and in their sociality they develop a collaborative commitment. One challenge faced by societies composed of tiny publics is that the desire for smooth interaction may make them conflict-averse, avoiding controversies that might productively be addressed, or may lead them to simply bow to the demands of the most powerful. As a result, tiny publics that hope to be adversarial are vital in bettering society precisely because of their challenge.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 13번: 디지털 기술의 발전과 개인의 책임]

The utopia of digital humanism demands a consistent departure from the paradigm of the machine. Neither nature as a whole nor humans should be conceived of as machines. The world is not a clock, and humans are not automata. Machines can expand, even strengthen, the scope of human agency and creative power. They can be used for the good and to the detriment of the development of humanity, but they cannot replace the human responsibility of individual agents and the cultural and social responsibility of human societies. Paradoxically, the responsibility of individuals and groups is broadened by machine technology and digital technologies. The expanded possibilities of interaction enabled through digital technologies and the development of communicative and interactive networks rather present new challenges for the ethos of responsibility, which the rational human being cannot avoid by entrusting responsibility to autonomous systems, whether they are robots or self-learning software systems.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 14번: 환경 문제에서 과학의 권위]

Science often even determines what becomes an environmental issue in the first place. Several of the most serious environmental problems, such as the transport of toxic pollutants over long distances, depletion of the ozone layer, and climate change, were only recognized as problems once scientists had described them. Indeed, the view that an issue only exists once science has described it is common in environmental politics. For instance, I am writing this on a hot September day, the air tinted an unhealthy orange. The Ontario provincial government has just announced it will upgrade its air quality monitoring network. It already measures ground-level ozone, which, as a product of hot days and chemical reactions in the atmosphere, is usually a problem only in summer. Soon the network will also measure fine particulates, which may be present throughout the year. As a result, the television reporter explained, poor air quality days may now occur at any time of the year. In effect, "poor air quality" has become a state that only exists once it can be measured scientifically. Such is the authority of science in environmental affairs.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 15번: 자녀의 능력에 대한 너무 이른 기대]

The temptation and desire of some parents to take advantage of and overstimulate unusual abilities of their children cause some children to be rushed through infancy too rapidly. This is apparent in the pride of the father and mother who tell of a child who never used "baby talk" but pronounced words with clarity from an early period, or who boast of a child who was trained to bladder control before the first few months were over. These are samples of achievements of questionable value, as they are not natural for the level of development at which the child was. Too frequently such a child will begin to talk "baby talk" or develop enuresis when he is four or five years old, much to the discouragement of the parents who had come to regard their child as "grown up." An unhappy, neurotic girl of fourteen formulated her major complaint as being that she was "born too soon," and it was true that she never had had the chance to be an infant, which fact, in turn, distorted the satisfactions of being a child.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 16번: 독서를 통한 글쓰기 향상법]

You can learn a lot by paying deliberate attention to your reactions as you read. If you find a paper particularly easy or pleasurable to read, what made it so? What wording, structure, or graphics did you think were effective? If you found a paper hard, what elements made you struggle? Can you imagine a change that would have made the writing clearer? Steven Pinker offers some concrete examples of this way of reading. Make notes about examples of effective or ineffective writing and save them in a folder for later reference. When you write, imitate what you liked and avoid re-creating what you didn't. Actually, doing this deliberately is just an extension of what you've been doing subconsciously ever since you learned to read. Just as children develop an ear for spoken language by listening to their families, friends, and neighbors ─ and therefore speak with a vocabulary and accent that can pinpoint their origins decades later ─ so you develop an ear for written language by reading. Things you've liked as a reader will naturally crop up in your writing, but you can greatly accelerate the process with some conscious attention to the matter.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 17번: 18세기 말 이후 평등의 진전]

At least since the end of the eighteenth century, there has been a historical movement toward equality. The world of the early 2020s, no matter how unjust it may seem, is more egalitarian than that of 1950 or that of 1900, which were themselves in many respects more egalitarian than those of 1850 or 1780. The precise developments vary depending on the period, and on whether we are studying inequalities between social classes defined by legal status, ownership of the means of production, income, education, national or ethno-racial origin. But over the long term, no matter which criterion we employ, we arrive at the same conclusion. Between 1780 and 2020, we see developments tending toward greater equality of status, property, income, genders, and races within most regions and societies on the planet, and to a certain extent when we compare these societies on the global scale. If we adopt a global, multidimensional perspective on inequalities, we can see that, in several respects, this advance toward equality has also continued during the period from 1980 to 2020, which is more complex and mixed than is often thought.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 18번: 토양 탄소 격리의 긍정적 효과]

In the context of global climate change, understanding the carbon sequestration potential of soils has assumed renewed importance. Soil carbon sequestration refers to the process of transfer of CO2 from the atmosphere into the soil through various sources, such as plant residues, organic solids and so on. The soil carbon sequestration significantly helps counterbalance emissions from fossil fuel combustion and other carbon-emitting activities while enhancing soil quality and long-term crop productivity. While in the atmosphere, the enhanced levels of carbon are highly undesirable due to its contribution to global warming and greenhouse effect, in soil systems higher amounts of carbon are very much desirable. This is because in soils, higher amounts of organic carbon contribute significantly to soil health in terms of its influence on soil structure, biological composition and microbial activity.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 19번: 소리 세기 전쟁]

We create sonic space every time we press "play" on our smartphones and CD players at home. Because we have an abundant choice of music, albums and tracks are set into competition with one another for our attention. The loudest ones usually win, even if we think we have no preference for loudness. Our brains consistently judge louder music as "better." Moreover, our brains also prefer music that has had its quiet passages amplified. This psychological quirk sparked the "loudness wars," starting with CDs in the 1990s and continuing to the present day. Producers increase the amplitude of every part of the music, turning the variable loudness of a piece of music into what they call a brick wall, a final product in which every part of the track is boosted to the highest level possible. The resulting sound file on a computer screen shows a tall and unvarying wall of intensity instead of the ups and downs of the volume of most live music. The overall impression is of louder, more present music.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 20번: 업무 자동화]

Work automation only rarely involves substituting a robot, chatbot, or AI for the human worker in a particular job. Rather, most work automation effects will reinvent the work. This will require that humans and automation work together, as some of the tasks formerly done by the human worker are now done by automation but many of the formerly human tasks will still be done by the human worker. For example, the traditional job of infrastructure inspector/repairperson for things like power lines or pipelines combines in a single job tasks such as physically inspecting, recording data, diagnosing potential faults, and repairing the faults. Increasingly, the new infrastructure work combines humans with automated drones or sensors that take on the tasks of physical inspection and recording data. The human workers are left to focus on diagnosis and creative repair solutions, with the repairs carried out by remotely guided automated machines.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 21번: 정보의 홍수와 인공 지능]

Knowledge is at the root of technology, information is at the root of knowledge, and today's technology makes information vastly more accessible than it has ever been. Shouldn't this help us solve our problems? The explosion of AI feeds the tsunami, turning every image, every text, and every sound into yet more information, flooding our limited human brains. We can't absorb the flood without curation, and curation of information is increasingly being done by Als. Every subset of the truth is only a partial truth, and curated information includes, necessarily, a subset. Since our brains can only absorb a tiny subset of the flood, everything we take in is at best a partial truth. The Als, in contrast, seem to have little difficulty with the flood. To them, it is the food that strengthens, perhaps leading to that feared uncontrollable scenario where superintelligence sidelines humans into irrelevance.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 22번: 컴퓨터 게임 애니메이션 속 물리학 법칙의 자유로움]

When objects move in a CG animation, their motion must appear to be consistent with the envisioned world's laws of physics. Because the objects have no real mass or dimensions, their physics too must be simulated by an algorithm. Otherwise, the player of Half-Life: Alyx could accidentally run through a wall and emerge on the other side. The effects of collisions as well as the effects of acceleration and gravity must be simulated ─ that is, if the animators want the scene to look and act like our world. But the physics of computer games do not have to be the same as those of the physical universe. Gravity could have any value the animators want, or it could be absent. A ball could gain velocity when it ricochets off a wall, rather than slowing down. Each effect will have its own visual meaning, creating a sense of realism or surrealism.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 23번: 단독 상태가 의견 중요도 인식에 미치는 영향]

The perceptual salience of a characteristic is partly due to the situation in which it is encountered. Shelley Taylor and her colleagues have found that solo status, such as being the only woman on a committee or the only Asian student in a class, commands others' attention. In one study, participants watched a group of six students discuss a topic; the groups consisted of each possible distribution of men and women (e.g., six men, no women; five men, one woman, etc.). Participants then evaluated the contributions of a given group member. The results showed that the significance attributed to a group member's comments was inversely proportional to the size of their minority group. In other words, as people become more noticeable in a group, acquiring more solo status, their actions stand out and acquire greater importance in perceivers' eyes. This occurs even when the quantity of the member's contribution to the group remains the same across the various group types. [요약문] According to one study, having solo status in a group increases the perceived significance of one's comments in a discussion, even when the amount of one's contribution to the group does not differ across group types.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 24~25번: 개인용 로봇에 대한 환상]

Is the making of illusions, which is arguably what the developers of personal robots do, necessarily bad? For example, if an illusion is created in which the robot is a living being or friend, is this bad? Surely we do not have a problem with illusions when we go to the theater or a magic show. We are happy to be "deceived" during the show. Before and afterward, however ─ and perhaps during ― we at the same time know that what is seen is not real. There is a so-called suspension of disbelief: people temporarily accept a show or story as reality in order to be entertained. Applied to personal robots, this would mean that people temporarily suspend disbelief during the interaction with the robot in order for the robot to do its "magic." Ethically speaking, then, one could demand from designers and those who offer the robot to users that users be made aware that the robot is creating illusions, that what goes on in the human-robot interaction is "as if' and make-believe. This is a challenge for designers and developers, but also for parents, care workers, and others who offer the robot to those they are supposed to take care of; it requires a kind of honesty about what the robot really is and can provide. This would go against much of the current advertising for personal robots, which are often sold as your "friend," supplying "companionship" and enabling "conversations," and so forth.

 

[Mini Test 03 - 26~28번: 비행기 안에서 게임을 하는 소년과 변호사]

Once a small boy and a lawyer were seated next to each other on a flight from Los Angeles to New York. As soon as the flight took off, the lawyer turned around and asked the little boy if he would like to play a game that is fun and interesting. The boy refused since he wanted to sleep for a few hours. The lawyer insisted that the little boy must indeed play the game and explained the rules. "It is really lots of fun. I will ask you a question. If you cannot answer, then you will give me $5 and vice versa," he said. The little boy tried to ignore the lawyer and pretended to turn the other way and sleep. After a while when he turned around, he saw the lawyer peering at him. "This time we will play it differently. If you don't answer, you pay $5. If I don't answer, I will pay you $100," the lawyer said. The boy knew that unless he played a round, the lawyer was not going to let him off. So he agreed to the lawyer's terms. "What is the distance between the sun and the earth?" This was the lawyer's first question. The boy shook his head, took a five-dollar bill from his pocket, and gave it to the lawyer. It was now the boy's tum to ask a question. "What goes up a hill on two hands and walks down on three?" he asked. The lawyer was perplexed by the question, for he did not know the answer. He immediately opened his laptop and searched the web for answers. He emailed his friends and colleagues in desperation to find the answer, but to no avail. No one could give an answer. Frustrated, the lawyer gave the boy a one-hundred-dollar bill. "Thank you!" said the boy in a relieved tone and settled down to sleep. The lawyer was annoyed that the boy had not given him the answer. So he shook him and asked, "What is the correct answer?" The boy smiled, took out a five, and handed it over to the lawyer, saying, "Who knows?!"