1) 빈칸이나 순서 등의 문제에 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 감안해서 이용하세요. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정할게요.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 공지 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다.
Until at least the early 2000s, the World Wide Web was a rapidly evolving space but one with a chronic problem─it was an ever-expanding repository of information with no efficient search function. In 1994, the editors of Postmodern Culture, one of the first academic journals to start publishing on the web, were concerned enough about this new medium to warn their readers that venturing onto the web, which had grown from an estimated 100 sites in June to over 600 sites by December 1993, may result in "a kind of informational vertigo." While this warning may now strike readers as extremely funny, it is worth noting that for much of the 1990s, finding anything on the web was a problem. It would take nearly a decade for this problem to resolve. As search engines were refined and became more functional, however, the drive to "game the system" also increased. And more individuals and organizations started to produce content for the web that had one sole purpose: to rank high in any search. So-called discoverability came to dictate why a lot of content was being produced.
[1강- Exercise 2번:글로기록하는것에대한소크라테스의생각]
A particularly revealing excerpt illustrating the importance of written documents is provided by a remark made by Socrates. Socrates was an important philosopher in Ancient Greece, who was not at all interested in keeping written records of his thoughts. In a dialogue with a young student (Phaedrus) Socrates recounted how the god Thoth of Egypt offered the king of Egypt all types of inventions, including dice, checkers, numbers, geometry, astronomy and writing. The god and the king discussed the merits and drawbacks of the various gifts and were in general agreement until they reached the gift of writing. Whereas the god stressed the advantage of being able to remember information, the king objected: 'If men learn this, it will implant forgetfulness in their souls; they will cease to exercise memory because they will rely on that which is written, calling things to remembrance no longer from within themselves, but by means of external marks.' From the remainder of the dialogue it is clear that Socrates wholeheartedly agreed with the king of Egypt and thought that the availability of books made students lazy and discouraged them from properly studying.
[1강- Exercise 3번:개인의도덕성평가준거로서의의도]
The history of ethics is largely a history of the development of two central lines of thought: one that emphasizes our fundamental duties to others, and the other that strives to justify decisions based on the effects that our actions have on others. Immanuel Kant, William David Ross, Seyla Benhabib, and others argued that the most important question to pose is whether a person understood and was attempting to carry out a moral obligation or duty. If so, the outcome of one's action has no bearing on whether he or she acted ethically. Their duty-based, or deontological, approach is focused almost exclusively on intent and is the only way, they argued, to acknowledge the existence of universal moral obligations and to assess one's moral character. What makes a lie immoral, Kant said, is not the consequence of the lie─whether it prevents embarrassment or results in serious harm. A deliberately told lie is wrong because of what it is, not what it does: by its nature, a lie is an assault on our human dignity. We are failing morally if our intent is to deceive, and whatever results from that deception is immaterial.
[1강- Exercise 4번:의사소통동반자로서의알고리즘의특성]
The communicative relevance of algorithms is actually related to their independence from understanding. We are facing a way to process data (and to manage information) that is different from human information processing and understanding. My assumption is that this difference is not a liability but instead is the very root of the success of these technologies. Just as human beings first became able to fly when they abandoned the idea of building machines that flap their wings like birds, digital information processing managed to achieve the results that we see today after abandoning the ambition to reproduce in digital form the processes of the human mind. Now that they no longer try to resemble our consciousness, algorithms have become more and more able to act as competent communication partners, responding appropriately to our requests and providing information neither constructed nor reconstructible by a human mind.
[1강- Exercise 5번:인구의안정과문화변화]
Sociocultural evolution provides some reason to suspect that a stable population, which sounds so good to most people, would deprive human culture of its greatest single source of dynamism ― population growth itself. The origins of agriculture, agricultural intensification, political evolution, industrialization ― all appear indebted to population growth. However, population growth's role in a few major cultural transformations of the past does not mean that it is essential for all culture change; it scarcely seems likely that people would stop seeking better cures for disease, for example, simply because population had stabilized. Furthermore, the absence of population growth does not necessarily mean the absence of population pressure. Indeed, Thomas Robert Malthus believed that populations, when they do stabilize, tend to do so at a level too high to be easily supported by existing resources, creating constant pressure for culture change. If he was right, then even a population stable numerically is inherently unstable culturally.
[1강- Exercise 6번:강의복원]
Restoring a river in order to recover a species, whether salmon in the Columbia River Basin, or any other species in diverse ecologies around the world, requires drawing from expertise across many fields: from engineering to biology to ecology to geomorphology. River restoration is about more than just "fixing" a broken stream; it also involves everything that connects to that stream and the organisms that rely on it─in this case, the endangered salmonids as they move throughout their complex life cycles. When people in the field refer to the work of "restoration" they are usually casting a broad net. They may be including riverside and streamside habitat: the wetlands and forests and estuaries that salmon pass through at different times in their (non-ocean) lives, as well as the stream morphology: the arrangement of rocks and debris that forces the stream to move in a particular way. Restoration, therefore, also covers the geology of the river itself, along with the flow of water: the element that is most often in greatest need of being restored. As one restorationist said, their job is to "re-complexify a simplified river."
[1강- Exercise 7번:식품매개성질병과그에따른비용]
Eating offers pleasure at the risk of future pain. This obvious truth holds today more than ever with our increasing ability to detect and identify food-borne illnesses. Well-publicized outbreaks of cholera and Salmonella have made people aware that food-borne disease makes a lot of us sick every year: an estimated 76 million illnesses annually in the United States alone, with over 300,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths, imposing an estimated cost in the tens of billions of dollars. For example, Jean C. Buzby and Tanya Roberts estimated that for six bacterial pathogens, the costs of human illness are estimated to be US$9.3-12.9 billion annually. Of these costs, US$2.9-6.7 billion are attributed to food-borne bacteria. One estimate suggests that 1 out of 3 consumers in industrialized nations suffers from known and newly recognized food-borne diseases each year. And if we look globally, we might also note that "hundreds of millions of people around the world fall sick as a result of consuming contaminated food and water.... Children under five still suffer an estimated 1.5 billion annual episodes of diarrhea, which result in more than three million premature deaths."
[1강- Exercise 8번:기업의제조사업체이전]
The need to contain cost is a major driver of globalization. Firms are encouraged to expand beyond their home jurisdictions in order to capitalize on low wage rates in other countries. A significant number of North American and European companies, many of them well-known manufacturers of branded consumer products, have elected to move their manufacturing operations to China in order to take advantage of that country's low wage structure. Clothing and shoe manufacturing firms have been producing in China for many years but so also have companies in other sectors such as consumer electronics, food and industrial products. While China's wage rates are considerably lower than those in western industrialized economies, they have been rising significantly in recent years. This has prompted some companies to seek out even lower wage jurisdictions for their manufacturing operations, and interestingly has also encouraged American firms to move production back to the USA.
[1강- Exercise 9번:입사지원자평가에활용되는네트워크화된정보]
Our reliance on networked information to assess job candidates will only increase as algorithmic tools become more sophisticated and less expensive. Today human resources rely on Big Data─the collection and analysis of massive databases of information─to identify job prospects. Analytics firms crunch data to search for and assess talent in particular fields. Remarkable Hire scores a candidate's talents by looking at how others rate his or her online contributions. Talent Bin and Gild create lists of potential hires based on online data. Big-name companies like Facebook, Wal-Mart, and Amazon use these technologies to find and recruit job candidates. Will algorithms identify targeted individuals as top picks for employment if they have withdrawn from online life? Will they discount online abuse so that victims can be evaluated on their merits? One can only guess the answers to these questions, but my bet is that victims will not stack up well next to those who have not suffered online abuse.
[1강- Exercise 10번:피타고라스학파사람들의여성과남성에대한관점]
Although it was rare, some ancient philosophers took exception to the view that women were complete subordinates. Around 532 BCE in Croton, a beautiful and prosperous seaside city located in the toe of southern Italy, Pythagoras founded a school of philosophy devoted to mathematical and theological insights. Women were allowed to study and teach in the school. Pythagoras and his followers postulated that women were men's intellectual equals and that the two were capable of friendship. Nevertheless, from what remains of their writings today, it seems they didn't want to shake things up too much. Men and women studied separately, and but for the few women in Pythagorean schools, the rest were to carry on with their traditional social roles. What's more, the friendship that brought the sexes together required women's obedience. A harmonious asymmetry is how the Pythagoreans liked to think of it, and in the case of marriage, as one ancient historian put it, Pythagoreans held that wives were "not to oppose their husbands at all," and that wives "would achieve a victory if they gave in to their husbands."
[1강- Exercise 11번:경력의변화하는정의]
Definitions of what a career is are changing. Historically, a career was defined by upward mobility and advancement in a steeply graded hierarchy, achieving greater responsibility and influence, with the vast majority of employees remaining with their organizations for life. Career success was measured by objective criteria such as pay, status and power. Today a career is more likely to be defined as a lifelong series of work experiences, with job movements being upward, sideways and in some cases downward ― termed protean careers. Career success is increasingly measured by intrinsic criteria such as satisfaction, engagement, meaning, learning and growth rather than external criteria such as income and organizational level. More people today want to trade money for meaning. Sheryl Sandberg views careers today more like 'jungle gyms', structures allowing movement from one rung to another, rather than as a ladder.
[1강- Exercise 12번:수요주도적인관점으로의변화]
In the past it was always a safe assumption that the expanding marketplace would consume everything that was produced. As a consequence, the primary goal of a company was to produce in the most efficient way and distribute products to the market. However, the old view that a business makes products and then sells them within the supply chain is no longer so relevant or valid, as businesses have come to realize that they can lead a horse to water, but they cannot make it drink. In the future, companies cannot sell products anymore: people will buy from you. This means that the old concept of being supply-driven (company pushes products to the market) is being replaced by a pull-concept (the market pulls goods from you) where a company understands what their customers need and works backward, deciding how it can satisfy that demand by developing new capabilities. Thinking about business from the outside-in perspective (in other words being demand-driven) is mainly a customer-centric view, where organizations no longer have a sales focus but a buying (customer) focus.
[2강- Exercise 1번:인간과개미의유사성]
They often say people look like ants when seen from a great height. I lean forward a little in my seat and look out of the window. Our flight to Peru has yet to reach cruising altitude. Below us, I can just about make out roads, houses and fields, cows in a pasture, here and there a village, and a city in the far distance. It's not a bad comparison, I think. Everything I can see from up here is something I have encountered in my research on ants: fixed roads, spectacular buildings, agriculture, livestock farming. I let myself sink back into my seat. The parallels don't stop there, if you think about it. Ants live in cities, just like people. In times of peace, they go about their work, sharing the labor fairly. Each has a job, from the wet nurses in the nursery to the architects, construction workers, and housekeepers in the nest, to the hunters and gatherers, who ensure that everyone is fed. But peace does not last forever, even among ants. Neighbors fight over the borders to their territory and wage bitter wars on one another.
[2강- Exercise 2번:유아의반복되는음절인식]
Infants' abilities to track patterns were demonstrated in a series of landmark studies that first appeared in 1996. The studies focused on how infants identified artificial spoken words embedded in much larger strings of spoken syllables. When infants hear a string of syllables, such as po-ta-to, repeatedly occurring, do they start to see that string as somehow special and cohering as a unit, namely potato? They do so easily. In fact, infants under six months can learn new artificial words in under two minutes. (They are artificial to make sure infants don't already have experience with them as words.) In the studies, infants listen to much longer strings of syllables in which certain artificial words, such as bidaku, repeatedly occur amid other nonrepeating random strings of syllables. No other cues to repeating three-syllable words are present such as intonation, special stress, or pauses. Based solely on repeated co-occurrences, infants reliably came to expect such sequences to occur again in the future in comparison to other completely novel three-syllable sequences for which they showed no such expectations.
[2강- Exercise 3번:인공위성관측데이터의용도]
Working with the Department of Commerce, NASA satellites have provided orbital observations that have enabled the understanding of climate change. Satellites track weather patterns and measure the effectiveness of farming methods and innovations in agriculture, which have helped to feed millions more than we could have dreamed possible before the space age. The collection and distribution of fresh water, rapidly becoming one of this century's most valuable resources, is monitored globally. Aquaculture data─tracking stocks of fish and modeling how to best utilize and maintain a healthy supply of this important food source─is generated from space-based observations. The identification of mineral resources is increasingly performed via satellite imagery. Satellites are also a part of the global traffic control system for aircraft. Even ground transport─trucks, trains, and the like─is monitored from orbit. In short, much of what drives modern civilization is affected, and in most cases improved, by the use of data obtained from satellites.
[2강- Exercise 4번: wondering과아이의경이감]
Wondering goes beyond merely being curious. Building on prior knowledge and some sense of major causal and spatial patterns, we entertain rough sketches of possibilities or interpretations and strive to learn which is more accurate and how it is filled out. To marvel at something is also linked to wondering. While marvels and wonders often refer to awe-evoking things, when children engage in wonder, they do much more than simply sit in a state of passive reverential awe. Their awe is better described by the naturalist Rachel Carson─a joyous marveling at how an insight has revealed an enormous new expanse of possible patterns to explore. It is not the dumbstruck, potentially fear-laden sense of awe experienced by adults. Almost a century ago, in an isolated region of Papua-New Guinea, the anthropologist Margaret Mead observed that, when children were asked to explain why a canoe tied to a tree drifted away overnight, they offered explanations of how the rocking boat gradually loosened up the knot. In contrast, many adults invoked spirits, moral crimes, and supernatural interventions. When we see young children's wonder as filled with supernatural agency, we impose the encultured interpretations of adults.
[2강- Exercise 5번: Foster부부의팔찌장식물]
One couple created a very personal way to commemorate their participation in space missions. In the early 1960s, Toni Foster and her husband, Robert L. "Bob" Foster, an engineer who worked for McDonnell Aviation, the contractor that built NASA's Mercury and Gemini space capsules, had a tradition. Whenever Bob completed a project, he gave Toni a new charm for her charm bracelet. These space-themed tokens celebrated the end of significant professional projects and offered a gift to make up for being away so much during intense periods of work. The charms also recognized how she contributed to his career by taking care of their children and home, allowing him to spend time away as chief engineer on Project Mercury and operations manager on Project Gemini. Although the bracelet is now missing its clasp and is too short to be worn, the charms hanging from the delicate gold links tell an important story about the people who made human spaceflight happen.
[2강- Exercise 6번:불안의유전적성향의발현]
Your anxiety most likely has genetic roots. For example, many people that I treat at my center tend to have a family history of phobias, panic attack struggles, or obsessive compulsive disorder. The genetic connection can be close and obvious, like a parent, or less direct, like a second aunt or a great grandfather. To put it simply, this means that those with anxious wiring tend to be more likely to suffer from potential anxiety issues than those without. However, this inclination for developing an anxiety issue by no means suggests that it's a foregone conclusion. It just means the table has been set, should you take certain actions to sit down and eat! This is similar in some way to someone with a genetic predisposition toward alcohol abuse. Even though the pull might be strong, you only become an alcoholic once you abuse alcohol.
[2강- Exercise 7번:단어가별개의음소로구성되어있는지여부]
Although we think of speech as consisting of separate phonemes, it is easy to demonstrate that it doesn't. Think of the common activity in which a Muppet (or person) models sounding out a simple word. Letters appear on the screen and the Muppet says the sounds associated with them, one at a time, "b"... "a"... "t"..., gradually decreasing the pauses between them. Sometimes the letters are displayed far apart on the screen and gradually brought closer together as a visual cue. The sounds do not fuse into "bat" no matter how rapidly in succession they are spoken because it does not consist of three separate segments. A discontinuity always occurs at the very end when the rapidly but separately pronounced phonemes are followed by the word pronounced as a whole. How to get from one to the other, the Muppet does not say. The activity is useful because the child learns about letters and their sounds. It encourages the fiction that words consist of separate segments even as it demonstrates that they do not.
[2강- Exercise 8번:물과에너지를이용한상품의가공]
Unsurprisingly, processed materials are more valuable than raw ones. Lumber is worth more than timber, and flour is worth more than wheat. The modern analogies are that gasoline is worth more than crude oil and chemicals are worth more than natural gas. Industrious humans used energy to upgrade their natural resources into higher-value commodities they could export elsewhere. And, because of the higher value density of the finished products, it was smart to do so. Flour was more valuable per pound and easier to transport than wheat. The same could be said for the water that goes into it. It made more sense to transport a pound of flour than the 1,000 pounds of water required to grow it. Water and energy made it possible to process a wide range of goods, creating value along the way.
[2강- Exercise 9번:객관적,주관적성공과진정성과의관계]
Authenticity and objective success are independent of each other. The fact that a person is pursuing a career path that is an authentic expression of his or her most deeply held values and strongest interests says nothing about how successful the person will be in attaining career outcomes that others can observe. Subjective success (success as perceived by the individual) could potentially be high even with low authenticity. While this might seem counterintuitive, consider a person who had created an organization that was very successful, creating a huge fortune for the person. The person might subjectively see herself as being highly successful in this venture. But what if that person's true passion was for art and what if her original dream was to spend her career as a painter? Her authentic self would be a painter, but her actual self had become an executive, whose life had little room for art. This situation would be an example of an inauthentic career characterized by high objective and subjective success.
[2강- Exercise 10번:초객체의특징]
The philosopher Timothy Morton calls global warming a 'hyperobject': a thing that surrounds us, envelops and entangles us, but that is literally too big to see in its entirety. Mostly, we perceive hyperobjects through their influence on other things─a melting ice sheet, a dying sea, the buffeting of a transatlantic flight. Hyperobjects happen everywhere at once, but we can only experience them in the local environment. We may perceive hyperobjects as personal because they affect us directly, or imagine them as the products of scientific theory; in fact, they stand outside both our perception and our measurement. They exist without us. Because they are so close and yet so hard to see, they defy our ability to describe them rationally, and to master or overcome them in any traditional sense. Climate change is a hyperobject, but so is nuclear radiation, evolution, and the internet.
[2강- Exercise 11번:가족내의영향력변화]
While media are a significant cause of change in the social order, rarely are they the only one, or largest one. Thus, while the emergence of television likely contributed to changing notions of childhood, several other sociocultural factors may have strengthened this process. One particularly relevant factor has been a shifting balance of power in the family. Unlike the traditional "top-down" family communication style of the 1950s, today's parents negotiate with their children about what they may and must do, and both parties have a say in the outcome. Parents feel it is important to involve their children in family decisions so that they can learn to make choices and develop their identities. The parental motto has changed from "behave yourself' to "be yourself." Parents are more indulgent, feel guilty more often, and want the best for their children. They want to be "cool" parents, more their children's friends than authority figures.
[2강- Exercise 12번:컴퓨터프로그램이규정하는세상]
As we live in a world made of software, programmers are the architects. The decisions they make guide our behavior. When they make something newly easy to do, we do a lot more of it. If they make it hard or impossible to do something, we do less of it. When coders made the first blogging tools in the late '90s and early '00s, it produced an explosion of self-expression; when it's suddenly easy to publish things, millions more people do it. And when programmers invented "file-sharing" tools around the same time, a shudder ran through the entertainment industries, as they watched their lock hold on distribution suddenly evaporate. In fact, they fought back by hiring their own programmers to invent "digital rights management" software, putting it in music and film releases, making those wares trickier for everyday folks to copy and hand out to their friends; they tried to create artificial scarcity. If wealthy interests don't like what some code is doing, they'll pay to create software that fights in the opposite direction. Code giveth, and code taketh away.
[3강- Exercise 1번:사회적이동성에서천성의중요성]
The bitter irony of the nature-nurture wars of the twentieth century was that a world where nurture was everything would be horribly more cruel than one where nature allowed people to escape their disadvantages through their own talents. How peculiarly nasty to write people off because they were born in a slum, or fostered by indifferent parents. The society depicted in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World is usually mistaken these days for one of fatalistic genetic determinism. In fact it is the very opposite, a place where early nurture for the elite produces unfair advantages. Fortunately, we know from the work of the economist Gregory Clark that elites regress inexorably to the mean over time. Despite sending their children to elite pre-schools, the richest of the rich in a city like New York can do little to make up for their children's genetic mediocrity; and despite getting little opportunity, brilliant kids from the slums can make it big. Nature is the friend of social mobility.
[3강- Exercise 2번:컴퓨터기술의빠른진화와예술사학자의선호주제]
The expanding nature of digital technology meant new forms were constantly surfacing and rapidly diversifying. As Dieter Daniels wrote regarding the growing complexity of current digital media, it is "impossible to take in the whole picture." No technology has ever unfolded its potential as swiftly as computers. In contrast to traditional tools, which retained their form and function for hundreds of years, the computer has changed dramatically in a short space of time. There was, as pioneering artist Mark Wilson suggests, a "bewildering variety of computational techniques" available to the artist. Throughout the history of computer art, it seems that artists have often struggled with the morphology and tempo of digitalization. For the theorist and artist, it was difficult to follow the rapidly evolving nature of the technology and the sudden succession and redundancy of forms. Equally, the historian was faced with the difficulty of mapping these rapidly transforming and ever-expanding digital forms. This is perhaps why art historians have traditionally preferred subjects that evolved at a manageable pace.
[3강- Exercise 3번:의사결정에수반되는비용의최소화]
One might say that a language predisposes us to think certain things, but perhaps its main effect is in causing us not to think certain things. It is well established that we fail to notice much of what goes on around us. Research on human decision making shows that while we routinely disregard a portion of available information, this in fact makes good sense. Part of the logic of decision making is to minimize the costs involved. It is the same from small things, like choosing which brand of cereal to buy, to big things like finding a life partner. Once you have locked on to a decision-making problem, your next step is to find ways to narrow the search for an appropriate solution and lock off, or stop the search, by making the decision that yields the best balance: desired benefit for lowest cost. And you should make the decision quickly in order to get on with making the next incoming decision.
[3강- Exercise 4번:추가영양분공급원으로서의초기인간남성]
Few accounts of early human evolution depict males being fathers or sons, and yet every single one of our male ancestors was both of those things. That's not to say that early human fathers put as much effort into hands-on child care as early human mothers did. But once the size of our ancestors' brains began to expand, it's likely that adult males began to live with mothers and children, and groups worked together to collect and prepare food. It seems to us that mothers would have needed help from adult males to get enough food for themselves and their larger-brained children. Chimp mothers are stretched to capacity finding enough food to keep their larger-brained babies alive. We reckon that australopithecine mothers could have managed if they had worked together and got help from their older children. But it's hard to see how mothers could find enough food to supply the calories needed to support the growth of even larger-brained youngsters while at the same time supporting their own larger brain. Males were the only possible source of the extra nourishment.
[3강- Exercise 5번:개인의감염이력과미래의질병위험과의관계]
Health researchers are increasingly examining how people move around the world and interact. They do this through surveys, mobile phone data and satellite imagery. Soon it will be possible to link this data with other information─from genome sequences to environmental analysis─to study infections across a range of scales. Rather than focus only on the biological features of a disease, or its impact on a particular population, we will be able to simultaneously analyse the infection, its evolution and its environment, as well as the behaviour of its human patients. This will allow health agencies to design disease control strategies specifically for different populations and areas, and it will be particularly important in situations where a person's history of infection can influence their future risk of disease. Dengue fever is a good example: if you've previously been exposed to one strain of dengue, it can make your second infection more severe. That's why a 2016 study coordinated by the World Health Organization recommended that dengue vaccination campaigns should account for the history of infection within a population.
[3강- Exercise 6번:우주나다른행성에서무기한으로사는것의어려움]
It was an amazing feat to get to the moon, stay there for a few hours, and return to Earth. The spacecraft for the eight-day journey was equipped with enough food, oxygen, and other necessities for the astronauts to survive. It's quite another undertaking for a colony of people to live indefinitely in space by growing crops and recycling water and wastes. One person consumes roughly three times his or her body weight in food, four times that weight in oxygen, and eight times that weight in water, and generates 130 pounds of feces and 880 pounds of carbon dioxide in a single year. Clearly, the prospect of carrying enough food to eat, water to drink, and air to breathe for a colony of people is out of the realm of possibility, not to mention the difficulty of carrying away the waste. Even a single glass of water would require massive amounts of energy to lift into space. A colony living indefinitely in space or on another planet would need to grow its own food and cycle its water and wastes. Clockwork switches over to complexity.
[3강- Exercise 7번:상대적손해여부에따른불공정함에대한처벌]
If punishment were about promoting cooperation, we should simply punish unfair people. How much the other person's unfairness caused them to gain on us personally shouldn't impact our decision. However, as two psychologists, Nichola Raihani and Katherine McAuliffe, have found, this is not the case. Their experiment involved a two-player game where one player could steal money from the other. The victim always suffered the same loss. However, the relative outcome varied. Sometimes the thief still ended up with less cash than their victim, sometimes they had the same as the victim, and sometimes they had more. The study found that the victim's decision to punish the thief was strongly influenced by whether the thief ended up better off than the victim. People punished when they were made worse off by another person breaking a rule. They did not simply punish because the other broke a moral rule. Their punishment was not about increasing cooperation. It was about harming someone who had unfairly advanced ahead of them.
[3강- Exercise 8번:집단내결속력강화에따른타집단에대한적대감상승]
We recognise that groups divide as well as unite, and the intensity of our bonds within them may proportionately discourage relationships with non-members. This presents us with a distinctly utopian problem. Utopia is an idealised group characterised by enhanced sociability. But every "in" group implies exclusion, or an "out-group". The attractiveness of the group may well be proportionate to its delineation of and antagonism towards its enemies. Germans, for instance, have been described as achieving a "grand utopia of belonging" in their united enmity to the Jews under Hitler. So every utopia is a potential dystopia. Affection for and loyalty to some may be defined by hostility towards others: neighbouring countries, rival football clubs, other races, religions, and nations. The last are particularly guilty here. The most ambitious and universalistic theories of sociability demand a moderation of the more primitive forms of national loyalty by cosmopolitanism to emphasise our common essential humanity. But often they fail, and national enmity prevails instead.
[3강- Exercise 9번:동물들이처한환경에따른의사소통소리의다양성]
Small mammals and insects live near one another, often in dense vegetation. Their hearing range extends into what humans call the ultrasonic because these high sounds reveal useful information about the close-at-hand environment. Social and breeding signals of these animals are therefore also ultrasonic. To human ears, for example, mice and rats seem almost entirely silent, but these animals have rich vocal repertoires including play sounds, calls from pups to mothers, alarms, and breeding songs. Such high-frequency sounds travel very poorly in air, and so these sounds offer rodents good close-at-hand communication without revealing their locations. For animals that interact on larger scales, like humans and birds, lower frequencies work better for long-distance communication. Their ears─and thus breeding songs and calls─are tuned to lower frequencies. The diversity of sonic expression therefore reflects the varied ecologies of each species.
[3강- Exercise 10번:행위주체과잉탐지편향]
Human infants learn to distinguish between the living and the nonliving using clues about how things move and the noises they make (dogs move differently from cars and make different kinds of noises), and how they interact with other objects. But the neurological machinery that draws these distinctions is far from perfect, so it is not always easy to distinguish between what today we call the natural and supernatural realms. Our brains are always on the lookout for agents, and it is so easy to make mistakes when we hear whispers behind us in the night. Why do iron filings creep toward magnets? Why do rivers in flood seem so angry? Dreams and hallucinations encourage us to believe in the possibility of many types of purposeful beings. So does language, because grammatical forms tell us that actions require actors. In English, grammar forces you to say that the wind blows, the sun shines, the world spins, the pandemic spreads. Our minds have a bias toward overdetection of agency because that is usually a less dangerous error than the alternative. Mistaking a log for a crocodile might cause some merriment, but mistaking a crocodile for a log could prove fatal.
[3강- Exercise 11번:일관된국제적동물복지규정의필요성]
One area in which veterinarians are professionally involved is the now almost worldwide trade in animals. They are often called upon to oversee such operations, sometimes required by law to do so. But Simon Coghlan shows how things can go radically wrong, not least of all when slaughter is unregulated at the place of destination, where few legal restrictions prevail. He reviews the controversy that was aroused by the footage of Australian cattle being abused in Indonesian abattoirs and illustrates one of the central problems with the live-export trade, namely, the lack of international agreement on the treatment of animals. While animals may be treated tolerably well in the farms they are raised on in one country, there is no guarantee that they will be treated well either in transit to or upon arrival in another country. At the very least, veterinarians should be at the forefront of calling for consistent animal welfare regulations internationally. It is often their voice, either individually or collectively, that is missing from such debates.
[3강- Exercise 12번:교훈전달에있어서스토리텔링의중요성]
Storytelling is among the proudest of Indian traditions, and from ancient times, it has been associated with imparting wisdom and worldly knowledge. When you read the Panchatantra tales as a child, it was impossible to miss the moral underlying each story. And the Mahabharata, the grandest, the most complex and multi-layered of epics, wasn't merely a masterpiece of storytelling: it was, and remains, a discourse on life and living. The beauty of stories is that they teach without ever appearing to do so. Most of our early world view and our moral compass have been shaped through the stories we heard in the laps of our mothers and grandmothers without us ever realizing it. We looked forward to bedtime story sessions because the tales enchanted and entertained us, and through them we learned without ever feeling the burden of formal learning. Preaching rarely works with children, and I suspect it works no better with adults. In general, we are resistant to being handed down wisdom in black-and-white terms.
[4강- Exercise 1번:도덕적미결정성과상대성]
Ethical theories that appeal to experience instead of to intuition, religion or reason, sometimes treat indeterminacy simply as a problem of difficulty in measurement. They may call attention to differences in what is right or good under different psychological, historical and individual conditions. In that sense, morality is relative. A certain action is considered wrong if done by someone who possesses typical cognitive abilities, but not if done by someone who lacks the ability to make fine distinctions. You cannot expect the same rules of private property concerning land in a primitive hunting society and a small individual peasant society. You cannot impose the obligation to save a drowning man by swimming out for him upon one who cannot swim or who is desperately ill. Such individualization and particularization hardly constitute indeterminacy. For they call attention to the factors which make single and decisive answers correct; in short, they remove rather than enshrine indeterminacy.
[4강- Exercise 2번:창의력의발현]
One of the things that often block our creativity is our own inhibitions. Psychologists believe we have a built-in censor that limits the information we are prepared to accept from the preconscious in order to protect ourselves from being overwhelmed by the information we contain in our brain. Filters appropriate to our situation ensure appropriate recollection. If we are in a leisure situation, leisure links are used and work recollections are unwelcome. If we are at work, we do the opposite. This could well be the reason why an idea will come to us out of context. We might have been racking our brain to consider how to extend a particular story, but as soon as we settle into a different activity, such as socialising with friends or watching TV, the idea comes to us. It seems that during the incubation phase of the idea, because we have adjusted the parameters of the censor, an association that we otherwise would not have considered will be delivered to our subconscious, and our conscious mind will suddenly recognise it as appropriate for the problem we were dealing with before.
[4강- Exercise 3번:불확실하고잘못된이론을통한과학의진보]
The success of science is better accounted for if we consider that the goal of science is deeper understanding of nature instead of certainty. Science thus succeeds when it produces scientific understanding. We can then easily see that science has continually advanced throughout its history because scientific understanding has increased, even if the explanations and predictions produced are uncertain. It can also occur even if the theories and models used to make those explanations and predictions are uncertain. In fact, such advancement can occur even if the theories and models involved are false! Copernicus's theory improved upon Ptolemy's theory even though it included the idea that Earth's orbit around the sun is circular. Kepler's theory improved upon Copernicus's theory by holding that Earth's orbit is elliptical rather than circular. And Newton's theory of gravitation led him to make a further improvement by recognizing that Earth's orbit is not exactly elliptical. Each of these theories constituted a scientific advance from their predecessors. However, they were all false theories. Despite the fact that the theories were false─and thus clearly uncertain─they led to deeper understanding of Earth's orbit.
[4강- Exercise 4번:조직의표현규칙과리더의감정표현의자율성]
Adopting a simplistic "be positive and smile" approach may be even less feasible for leaders than for front-line service workers. Like front-line workers, leaders often experience frustrating work events, and sometimes these events may have a stronger influence on them than the organizational display rule to be positive. Perhaps of even greater concern, a simplistic display rule to be always positive may deprive mid- and lower-level leaders of the discretion they need to adopt the best emotional tone for the situation. Unlike many service workers, who often must display the same emotion (such as smiling or showing sympathy) over and over again in a fairly repetitive fashion, leaders have to display a much wider range of emotions and use considerable judgment as to which emotions best suit the situation. Consequently, organizational display rules for leaders must give them the freedom to display a wide range of emotions, and the autonomy to use considerable judgment about which emotions to display at any given time.
[4강- Exercise 5번:매개커뮤니케이션의기능]
The philosopher Michel de Montaigne is an early representative of a different view of media. He considered writing to be a unique way of exploring and recording "traits of my character and my humours," which he famously did best while working alone in his writing tower. In fact, he actively used the opportunities of pen and paper to continuously revise and make additions to his essays, in a manner reminiscent of what goes on in the recording studio. The ability of writers to express their inner lives, and to imagine the experiences of others, has always been broadly celebrated, including the way novels are able to place various personalities and worldviews into dialogue with one another. The growth in distribution of books gave people fresh insight into the motivations and sentiments of others. The ability to provide increasingly detailed access to people's lives has since been considered a defining trait of electronic media, dramatically demonstrated by witness reports from warzones. These points can trigger a critical awareness of the power of mediated communication but might also inspire a nuanced appreciation of its rewards.
[4강- Exercise 6번:무지의사회학]
If there is a sociology of knowledge, then there should also be a sociology of ignorance. Such a sociology might begin with the question, Who does not know What? It is worth remembering that 'we are all ignorant, just about different things', as the American humorist Mark Twain remarked. For example, the spread of the Coronavirus was predicted by epidemiologists who had discovered the danger of the transfer of different diseases from wild animals to humans. On the other hand, governments either did not know or did not want to know about this prediction, so they were caught unprepared. Many disasters have occurred because those who knew could not act while those who acted did not know. The destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001 offers a dramatic example of failure in communication. Agents in the security services already suspected certain individuals of planning a terrorist attack, but their warnings were lost among the many messages sent to upper levels in Washington in a striking example of 'information overload'. As the national security adviser Condoleezza Rice admitted later, 'There was a lot of chatter in the system.'
[4강- Exercise 7번:생각의진정성]
The demands of the self usually conform so closely to societal norms that we feel no tension in acting upon our desires. The self emerges most clearly at times when our passions clash with social protocol. Their very inconvenience makes them feel "true." Over the last 150 years, however, psychologists and neuroscientists have warned us against attributing too much authenticity to our thoughts. Our brains are always engaged in rationalization: framing raw demands from our subconscious as well-grounded, logical requests. Psychologist Bruce Hood elaborates, "Even if you deliberate over an idea, turning it over in your conscious mind, you are simply delaying the final decision that has, to all intents and purposes, already been made." Later, "having been presented with a decision, we then make sense of it as if it were our own." The overwhelming number of truth-hiding mechanisms in our brains has convinced Hood that the self is an "illusion." Whether or not this is the best framing, we should certainly abandon the idea that the self is a "real me" cordoned off from any social influence.
[4강- Exercise 8번:기능으로부터목적의잘못된추정]
If you look at castles built during the Crusades, you will find holes in the walls and may, at first, believe that these were made as places to shoot arrows from. They were not. They are legacies of a kind of construction no longer performed and thus hard for the modern mind to imagine. When the castle was built, there was no free-standing scaffolding, so wood logs were driven between the stones until the next layer and another platform could be added; it wasn't until the castle was finished and all the wooden scaffolding was removed that they realized there was no way, at the time, to repair the holes. Any explanation that the holes were constructed in order to shoot arrows from─despite how well suited they appear for the task, after the fact─is incorrect, and the lesson applies wholesale to castles as well as to all of biology. Many erroneous assumptions are likewise made when one looks at any modern mammalian brain and infers, hundreds of millions of years after its creation, purpose from function.
[4강- Exercise 9번:인터넷정보보안의식의부재]
In the 1990s, as the Internet saw its global adoption, it became clear that not everything connected to the Internet should be available to everyone. An organization's server could include internal information that it never intended to be available from the outside, yet often it was easy to find for anyone who cared to look for it. Another challenge was that the technology was built with the idea that we trust people to use it appropriately. The implied idea that no one will intentionally try to sabotage or break things was a remnant of the early Internet days, and one that meant many servers and systems were open for anyone to use. We just trusted people not to take advantage. One of the first demonstrations of the lack of IT security was the first recorded Internet worm in 1988. The Morris worm provided clear evidence that the technology was not at all secure just because we tend to trust the users on the system.
[4강- Exercise 10번:정원가꾸기와유사한가치확인과갈등해결]
Identifying values and resolving conflicts is a little like gardening. To be honest, I hate gardening, but I have enough gardeners in my circle of friends and family to have a sense of what goes on with them. Gardeners work with what they've got─the soil, grown trees, the shape of the plot of land─and make it into something satisfying. For some people, this will mean a garden that produces fruit; for others, it will mean a garden that looks nice; for others, it might mean a garden that can't be ruined by cavorting dogs. Plants come into conflict: trees with dense foliage create shade in which other plants can't grow, some trees (like the black walnut) are toxic to lots of other plants, and some plants are invasive and take over everything. The gardener has to navigate these conflicts: find the best spots for the prized plants, remove the weeds, and sometimes make peace with imperfection.
[4강- Exercise 11번:발전의진정한의미]
The notion that "development" is synonymous with "economic growth" has been subjected to severe criticism. By far the most significant is that of Amartya Sen, who has argued that "commodities"─the production of which is a major part of economic growth─are only of value to us in terms of what they allow us actually to do. Sen advocates that we should think about development rather in terms of people's capability to achieve those things that they have reason to value: "The focus here is on the freedom that a person actually has to do this or be that─things that he or she may value doing or being." It is inherent in this approach that freedoms, both the "negative" freedoms─being free from unjustified coercion, and freedoms of speech and expression, of association, and of movement─and the "positive" freedoms, which have to do with what makes it possible for people actually to enjoy their freedom (including the material [commodity] means for this), are of fundamental importance. According to this view, therefore, development "can be seen as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy."
[4강- Exercise 12번:관찰자가형성해가는시각세계]
There had been hints for centuries that observers might have some role to play in reality. In fact, in his Opticks, Isaac Newton insisted that brightness and hue are not inherent, but that each observer actually creates all the colors of the visual realm within his mind. "The rays to speak properly are not coloured," he wrote. Other scientists eventually showed that Newton was right. By the early twentieth century, physicists had established that light consists of the alternating pulses of magnetic and electrical fields. Since neither magnetism nor electricity are visible to humans, to our eyes an emerald green forest canopy must be inherently blank. The fact that we see it as emerald green means that somewhere in the vast magical neurocircuitry of our brains, a "green" sensation arises, and then, by some equally marvelous mental occurrence, we "place" it out in front of our noses, in what we regard as the "external world."
[5강- Exercise 1번:음모론자와의논쟁]
It can often feel frustrating and pointless to argue with a conspiracist. Highlighting logical contradictions or a lack of reliable evidence, even showing them evidence that counters their claim, can seem like a waste of time when you don't make progress in changing a person's mind. But that does not mean you shouldn't try. What you should not do is accuse another person of ignorance or stupidity, however tempting that might be in the heat of an argument. Instead, examine where they have obtained their evidence; ask them what the chances are that the conspiracy could have been kept a secret by so many people. The Moon landing hoax is a good example of a conspiracy theory that is difficult to justify on these grounds, as it requires tens of thousands of people working for NASA and the many other industries that supported the Apollo missions to have been 'in on it' and to have remained silent for half a century. Just as importantly, try to understand their underlying concerns and why it is that they believe, or want to believe, what they do.
[5강- Exercise 2번:행동의이해와예측을수반하는스포츠]
Many sports involve interpreting and anticipating the behavior of other athletes. In basketball, for example, an athlete not only must execute actions in light of her immediate goals and overall game strategy, she also must coordinate her actions with her teammates' complementary actions and opponents' disruptive, incompatible actions. Coordinating her actions with teammates and opponents requires interpreting their behavior and anticipating what they will do next. For instance, she must recognize when an opponent is driving to the basket, anticipate the positions her teammates will be in when the opponent is driving to the basket, and decide whether to pursue the driving opponent or let a better-positioned teammate step in to defend against the drive. This dynamic interaction happens very quickly, and superior athletes are more highly skilled at coordinating their behavior with teammates and opponents' behavior.
[5강- Exercise 3번:정치에대한정의]
We all have an intuitive sense of what "politics" means, but may find it harder to define the term precisely. Modern political science offers a clear and helpful concept: politics is collective choice that is binding on a community. To see this, draw a contrast between politics as the domain of collective choice and economics as the domain of individual choice. Economic choices ― for example, what to consume or produce, or what kind of employment to engage in ― are individual and voluntary. Such choices will be constrained─we may not be able to buy everything we want, or choose the exact job we want―but they are not coerced. We make these choices, and no one else forces us to do so. Furthermore, these choices affect only the person who makes them and other, similarly consenting individuals who freely enter into voluntary, contractual relationships. By contrast, political choices are collective and binding. They may be a consequence of individual decisions (in a dictatorship, the choice of a single leader; in a democracy, the choices of a majority of citizens), but everyone in the community is obliged to accept these decisions whether or not they support them.
[5강- Exercise 4번:경험이질병증상에대한해석과반응에미치는영향]
It is not perhaps surprising that prior experience affects the interpretation of and response to symptoms. Having a history of particular symptoms or experience of illness in others (i.e. vicarious experience) generates assumptions about the meaning and implications of some symptoms. Also, symptoms considered to be rare in either one's own experience, or in that of others, are more likely to be interpreted as serious than a previously experienced or widespread symptom. Believing symptoms to be 'just a bug that's going round' can mean that people sometimes ignore potentially dangerous 'warning signals'. A knowledge of which bodily signs are associated with particular behaviour or illnesses (e.g. sweats and exercise, sweats and flu) will enable interpretation of the symptom and attachment of a meaning to it. These reserves of knowledge are known as 'disease prototypes'. Relevant to the ongoing (at the time of writing) coronavirus outbreak is the earlier finding that people tend to perceive novel viral threats as higher in risk compared to more common threats such as influenza.
[5강- Exercise 5~6번:스포츠를통한삶의성찰]
Following the dramatic arc of sporting contests and athletic careers allows us to witness the efforts of athletes to live good human lives─to pursue excellence, victory, fame, and fortune and also to deal with failure and loss. And while the drama of a play or novel is the scripted drama of the author's creation, the drama of sport is that of real people who must live with the consequences of their decisions. This is one reason why I reject the idea that sports should be sharply separated from "real life." When we watch sports, we are not watching characters. The actor who plays Romeo doesn't die at the end of the performance; he gets to leave the character's plight behind when he goes home. By contrast, injuries that players suffer in the pursuit of their goals are not rehearsed, and the quarterback of the losing team does not get to divest himself of the game's result. If these features of sports do not necessarily make sports an encouragement to ethical reflection that is superior to drama or literature, I think they at least show that sports are not inferior in this regard. At a minimum, I want to insist that if it makes sense to regard the plays of Shakespeare as legitimate sources for our own thinking about the nature of the good life, then there is no reason to think that sports are less capable of igniting such reflective capacities.
[5강- Exercise 7번:연구참가자의참가중단에대비한계획]
Participants who volunteer for a study must be allowed to discontinue participation. If research participants feel stressed, tired, or otherwise unable to continue the study to completion, there should be no stated threat of penalty for withdrawing. The informed consent should make it clear what the results of terminating will be, even if the probability of withdrawal is low. One approach to this problem is to provide participants with prorated compensation based on the percentage of the study they completed. If participants are being paid $25 for participating in a focus group, and the focus group begins to explore issues that make the participant uneasy, a withdrawing participant should be paid for the part of the focus group that she or he completed. For college students who participate for course credit, such partial credit could be harder to construct─but you should have a plan, especially if you think participants might not finish the study. As with many parts of the research process, it is wise to prepare for low-probability events.
[5강- Exercise 8번:번식에있어서암컷이치르는희생]
Reproduction is a fundamental problem for all organisms. Animal species exhibit a diverse range of strategies to produce offspring, which often require large inputs of energy and are associated with major risks to their survival. Among mammals, females undergo more direct costs of reproduction insofar as they carry (literally) the burden of embryonic and fetal growth and nourishment of the young through lactation. Thus the health of a female mammal directly affects reproductive outcome, both in terms of her fertility and the survival or death of her offspring. Human females experience these costs as a function of their mammalian heritage, but the variety of environments they inhabit generates substantial differences in the reproductive risks that women face. Their abilities to reduce these risks are important determinants of individual and population differences in maternal and child health and survival.
[5강- Exercise 9번:굴러내려오는공을관찰한갈릴레오의실험]
Galileo studied terrestrial gravitation not by asking about the nature of gravity, but by observing how objects behave when gravity acts on them. In particular, he did a series of experiments on balls rolling down inclined planes (the purpose of the incline being, in his words, to "dilute" gravity enough so that he could measure the time it took for the ball to roll with the primitive clocks available to him). By meticulously measuring the time it took the ball to travel various distances, he was able to find out how the speed of the ball changed in transit. His bottom line: Terrestrial gravity causes all objects to accelerate the same amount, regardless of their mass, and the rate of that acceleration is constant. These simple observations allowed Galileo and his contemporaries to understand (and predict) things like the fall of a stone or the arc of a cannonball. They are the basic facts that tell you everything you need to know about how unsupported objects behave at the surface of our planet.
[5강- Exercise 10번:위험상황을피하는감각]
The rule about not being a hero isn't about not taking action. This rule is about being a bigger person and having the good sense to walk away from a potential confrontation─even if there is a part of you that doesn't want to. Trust me. I know how hard this can be. I was running early one morning in Baltimore, Maryland, toward the inner harbor. I noticed two guys on the sidewalk ahead of me. I was in my jogging clothes, and they were fully dressed walking around at 6 a.m., which is a bit unusual. As I ran toward them, I saw them look at each other and then spread apart, creating a situation in which I'd have to run between the two of them. If I had placed myself between them, who knows what they might have done? I decided to play it safe: run across the street, making sure to give them eye contact and let them know I'm paying attention. Maybe it was nothing. Maybe they had six friends around the corner and they were going to rob me. My main point is that I didn't let my ego get in the way; I didn't feel a need to prove myself by running between them and risk a potentially dangerous situation.
[5강- Exercise 11~12번:미디어의공공소유에대한상반된의견]
Ownership of the media gives control over the nature of the information distributed. Proponents of public ownership of the media argue that because information is a public good─that is, once it has been supplied to some consumers it is hard to keep it away from others who have not paid for it─private owners tend to provide less information than would be socially desirable. They also argue that with private ownership the media industry runs the risk of representing the views of only a narrow group in society, and state ownership of the media is necessary to expose the public to desirable cultural or educational themes or values. Opponents of public ownership argue that government control of the media can be used to manipulate people and distort the information supplied in the incumbent government's favor. Moreover, experience shows that government-owned enterprises are less likely to be responsive to consumer demand. Finally, government-owned media are not subject to competition, thus giving rise to the danger of both poor-quality production and inefficiencies. A recent article on the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) claims that government ownership makes it harder than it would otherwise be for other media companies to grow. The article claims that the large amounts of tax revenue that are given to the BBC give it an advantage relative to private companies. It also contends that as a private company, the BBC would be more dynamic, and therefore better able to compete with global media firms.
[6강- Exercise 1번:동물착취의불의에도전할필요]
As consumers we have the right to know what we are paying for, and as active participants in the exploitation of animals we also have a moral obligation to confront the truth about the choices we make. The reality is that we all have our part to play in overcoming injustice, especially one so ubiquitous, systemic and universally perpetuated as the oppression of non-human animals. With the continuing industrialisation of animal farming and the increasing number of animals being farmed, coupled with the ever-growing existential threat of climate change and future pandemics, it has never been more important to address our current food system and challenge ourselves as individuals and consumers. By doing this, we can then challenge the normalisation of our dominance over non-human animals and the natural world that in turn negatively impacts every life on this planet, ours included. Fundamentally, that's an attempt to hold up a mirror to the absurdity of what we are doing and reveal the solution that is right there in front of us.
[6강- Exercise 2번:클래식음악과음악교육에서의창의성]
The terms "creativity" and "musician" were once inseparable. In the classical world, based on the conservatory approach, the creativity part has seemed to have all but disappeared. Yes, we are all creative beasts in some form, but in classical music and music education in general, creativity typically equates with being able to recreate a piece of music slightly differently from the way someone else does. For the most part, the instructions on how to play the piece of music are written directly onto the page, and the only part up for debate is how the instructions are to be "interpreted" by the musician playing that piece. Even then, there are generally accepted ways to interpret a piece of music that are considered conventional and stylistically appropriate. In every other genre of music outside of classical (and jazz to some degree), creativity and creating something new is part of being a musician and is never separated from that, nor does it rely solely on reproducing other people's music to exist.
[6강- Exercise 3번:나이와관련한정상적인것과노안]
What is normal? Dictionary definitions include usual or typical. Normal doesn't mean there's never a cause for concern, or that there's nothing that can be done to make things better. Normal age-related changes can affect what you do day-to-day and how you feel, both physically and emotionally. We're lucky to live at a time when so many adaptive devices and technologies are available. When you turn 40 or so, you develop blurred vision while doing close-up work, reading, using the computer, or sewing, for example. This is called presbyopia. It is "normal," and hopefully you will respond by getting glasses to correct your vision. Without glasses, you wouldn't be able to live a normal life, and your new visual impairment would become a disability. We don't usually think of glasses as assistive devices, yet they are, just like canes or hearing aids. They can make an enormous difference in the quality of our lives as we age; however, this will happen only if we recognize how they improve our function and ability to engage with the world when using them.
[6강- Exercise 4번:옛날의야생꿀벌집찾기]
Bee hunting, also known as bee lining, used to be practiced widely in Europe, North America, the Middle East, and Africa. Indeed, it may be a pursuit as old as humankind, for it is likely that early humans, living in hunter-gatherer groups, searched for nests of honey bees and robbed them of brood and honey for food, as do some of the hunter-gatherer peoples who have survived to the present time. Probably the earliest written description of the methods for finding the nest of a wild honey bee colony by lining bees is that of Columella, a Roman farm owner and writer on agriculture who lived in the first century A.D. In his book on the cultivation of bees, he gives delightfully detailed instructions for capturing bees at a spring, feeding them honey, and then releasing them one by one to trail them back to "the lurking place of the swarm."
[6강- Exercise 5~6번:거짓을이용한결속력과그한계]
One of the most dangerous properties of language is that it allows us to say things that aren't true. The danger is not just that people may be misled, but that falsehood may be more effective than truth. Truth becomes a victim of human sociality. The strength of human commitment to beliefs in supernatural entities and conspiracy theories─a kind of commitment found in human groups worldwide─draws precisely on the disconnect between a statement and the reality it claims to describe. If a group of people collectively state a belief in something that is likely to be false, then the statement, far from seeding doubt, will work as an honest signal of each individual's commitment to the group. Author Curtis Yarvin explains the attraction of improbable ideas in building social movements. For the purpose of social loyalty, it's actually better if the belief that people coordinate around is clearly false: "Nonsense is a more effective organizing tool than the truth.... To believe in nonsense is an unforgeable demonstration of loyalty. It serves as a political uniform. And if you have a uniform, you have an army." This is all very well if your only goal is to secure loyalty in defending a position, but reality will come for you at some point. While real soldiers may swear loyalty to magical ideas, they are ultimately in the business of physical force, not magic but brute reality. Once a bullet is flying, neither words nor the beliefs they express can stop it.
[6강- Exercise 7번:인간의인지를이해하기위한도구로서의읽기]
Reading is a tool for understanding human cognition. The capacity to use language evolved in humans over many thousands of years, the end result being that children acquire it easily and rapidly through interactions with other speakers. Reading is different: it is a technology, like radio, that came into existence because a person─or possibly several─had the insight to invent it. The advent of reading occurred relatively recently in human history, well after humans had evolved capacities to speak, think, perceive, reason, learn, and act. Reading was a new tool created out of existing parts. The fortuitous by-product of this history is that we can use reading to investigate all these capacities. A person doesn't have to be a reading scientist to study reading; they might study vision or memory, for example, using experimental methods that happen to involve having people read words and sentences. This bonus has resulted in the creation of a research literature of exceptional depth and quality.
[6강- Exercise 8번:공유된가정이의사소통을통해전달되는과정]
When talking about the shared assumptions that emerge from our social interactions and that we use to define reality, we need to also consider how these assumptions and ideas get communicated from person to person and then across entire populations. How does this actually happen? Communication takes place through the symbolic meanings that are captured in the words we say (and how we say them), the behaviors we exhibit, the gestures we perform, the clothes we wear, the makeup we (don't) apply, and so on. This particular view of social behavior can be summed up with the following statement: Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things and those meanings are, in the first place, created (and continuously re-created) through social interaction. This is yet another way of saying that reality is a subjective construction rather than an objective fact. It emerges from the infinite transactions or forms of communication between people.
[6강- Exercise 9번:지식재산법의필요성과역할]
Good ideas ― like a new way of treating a deadly disease or the perfect breakup song ― have the potential to improve lives. We want them to spread. So we should celebrate the fact that information goods don't run out or wear down. But the public-goods characteristics of information resources create a potential problem. Although a groundbreaking treatment or a heartbreaking song can be freely shared and enjoyed, making something new requires investments of time, effort, and money. If creators cannot recover those investments, plus a reasonable profit for their trouble, some will be dissuaded. In a world where creating new works is expensive and copying them is cheap and easy for the public, poets will become accountants, and inventors will become plumbers. Intellectual property (IP) law is meant to remedy this public goods problem ― the feared undersupply of creative investment ― by creating legal barriers to competition by prohibiting copying. IP rights are an effort to overcome the inherent characteristics of intellectual resources and force them to behave more like tangible property.
[6강- Exercise 10번:자기자신에충실한삶]
When we reflect on our past, we can see that the directions we have taken can often be traced back to one single, short moment. Our lives often turn on what at the time seem to be the most trivial of occurrences: a chance meeting and a single sentence that was or wasn't said. As one ages and becomes wiser, it becomes possible to see that life is governed in this way and that the big things in life, such as who one marries, what career one pursues, where one lives and so on, often arise from such unexpected everyday and, at the time, seemingly trivial encounters. To be able to navigate life successfully, so that you make the best decisions for yourself at any given moment, you need to be authentic─you need to be able to counter external influences pulling you to go against the grain of your own gut feelings. Authenticity is at the heart of our decision-making and it is in each and every small moment in life that it makes a difference. We are constantly in the process of creating ourselves.
[6강- Exercise 11~12번:진정한기술사용능력의필요성]
Across the sciences and society, in politics and education, in warfare and commerce, new technologies do not merely augment our abilities, but actively shape and direct them, for better and for worse. It is increasingly necessary to be able to think of new technologies in different ways, and to be critical of them, in order to meaningfully participate in that shaping and directing. If we do not understand how complex technologies function, how systems of technologies interconnect, and how systems of systems interact, then we are powerless within them, and their potential is more easily captured by selfish elites and inhuman corporations. Precisely because these technologies interact with one another in unexpected and often-strange ways, and because we are completely entangled with them, this understanding cannot be limited to the practicalities of how things work: it must be extended to how things came to be, and how they continue to function in the world in ways that are often invisible and interwoven. What is required is not understanding, but literacy. True literacy in systems consists of much more than simple understanding, and might be understood and practised in multiple ways. It goes beyond a system's functional use to comprehend its context and consequences. It refuses to see the application of any one system as a cure-all, insisting upon the interrelationships of systems and the inherent limitations of any single solution. It is fluent not only in the language of a system, but in its metalanguage─the language it uses to talk about itself and to interact with other systems─and is sensitive to the limitations and the potential uses and abuses of that metalanguage. It is, crucially, capable of both performing and responding to critique.
[7강- Exercise 1번:일기를체계적인사회연구에적용하기위한요건]
Details of the conduct of everyday life can be found, for example, in the diaries of remarkable mid-17th century individuals such as Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn, whose images of London daily life still capture the imagination. But the daily lives recorded in their diaries are certainly not in any sense representative of the society they describe─if only because the very act of keeping a diary renders the diarists themselves remarkable. In addition, the earliest diaries were simple free-form records of sequences of activities, often without detailed reference to timings. This makes it impossible to accurately calculate the aggregate time spent in different activities. The application of diaries to systematic social research depends on collecting carefully harmonized daily activity reports in large samples selected randomly from a population. Sociologists, economists and demographers can use the results of such time-use studies to describe and explain the factors that influence the chains of behaviours which comprise daily life.
[7강- Exercise 2번:기후변화에의한큰재앙의물결도래]
Nature is changing with the explosive growth in urban populations and cities have to deal with transformations in nature. While it pays too much attention to technology, smart cities research barely gives a nod to climate change, which is already influencing urbanites with more intense storms, flooding, record-breaking temperatures resulting from the emission of greenhouse gases and burning forests. As I write this in the summer of 2018, intense heat has made the season unbearable, and often life-threatening, for millions of city dwellers. Moreover, drought endangers the habitability of more of the earth's surface, unprecedented fires are burning across California and British Columbia, monumental floods have drowned hundreds and made climate migrants of millions in India's Kerala state, and a rare hurricane has pounded Hawaii. The first wave of what most experts believe will be catastrophic climate change appears to have arrived.
[7강- Exercise 3번:포만감을주는중간수치열량의음식]
If your brain thinks you're starving, it will eventually wear you down, no matter how strong your resolve. The solution is to give it the cues it needs to realize you aren't starving. The most straightforward way to do this is to choose foods that send strong satiety signals to the brain stem but contain a moderate number of calories. These are foods that have a lower calorie concentration, higher protein and/or fiber content, and a moderate level of tastiness. This tends to include simple foods that are closer to their natural state, such as fresh fruit, vegetables, potatoes, fresh meats, seafood, eggs, yogurt, whole grains, and beans. Bread is surprisingly calorie-dense, even when it's made from whole grains, so it can be easy to overeat. It may be preferable to get your starch from water-rich foods like potatoes, sweet potatoes, and beans rather than flour-based foods like bread and crackers. And foods based on white flour in particular, which tend to have a high calorie density and low fiber content, are definitely off the menu.
[7강- Exercise 4번:석기시대이야기에등장하는아이들묘사]
A number of fictional Stone Age accounts, especially from the first three decades of the 20th century, portray children in the active role of innovator and inventor. The basic formula of children as implementers of ideas and inventors of material culture is found in a variety of tales about the first fish spear, flint saw, bow and arrow, boat, taming of fire and cooking meat, and so forth. Another common theme in Palaeolithic fiction is children successfully domesticating animals, most often wolves and horses. Frequently the act of taming leads to more significant contributions such as helping a struggling people find food or hunt animals in new ways. For instance, in Malu 's Wolf, the main character tames a wolf who later finds an elusive herd of mammoths upon which the group depends. The interesting twist in this story is the fact that Malu is a girl, which is quite rare. Like the boys, she is allowed to use a spear thrower and participate in an initiation ceremony in the painted cave.
[7강- Exercise 5~6번:고령자삶의질을높이기위한주거이동]
Many local moves make an important contribution to maintaining older people's independence and raising their quality of life. With more than one-fifth of the population of most developed countries now aged 60 or more (and many in their 50s having retired), and average life expectancy close to 80 years of age, clearly 'old age' can extend for decades and be a substantial fraction of a person's life. It is a life course stage of many changes. Early in retirement, some move to more attractive environments, where they can pursue non-work interests, and others move to smaller homes or to live nearer their children and grandchildren. At older ages, many experience losses in health, vigor, partners, and income, and become no longer able to afford or drive a car, to climb stairs, to maintain a large garden or mow the smallest lawn, and to walk to and from shops. Several of these changes seriously impair an older person's or a couple's quality of life, but can be improved by a move to a more convenient home or location. One can say that impaired personal mobility encourages residential mobility. Some move to housing schemes designed for older people, for the surveillance or support they provide, or to enjoy more personal security. Population geographers have made substantial contributions to understanding the role of migration in older people's lives, but the work has been selective, and local moves and housing adjustments have been neglected. There is immense scope for more collaboration between geographers and gerontologists in understanding the role of residential mobility in older people's lives.
[7강- Exercise 7번:지하철차량문배치가탑승자에게미치는영향]
In comparing different subway car layouts, we can see how seemingly small design choices can have outsized effects on user behavior. The position of a subway car's doors, for example, shapes how riders use that space. When designers position doors symmetrically, riders will often crowd around the doors, leaving much of the car unused. When designers choose to position the doors asymmetrically, however, use of the space is more evenly distributed; passengers can enter and exit the car more efficiently. In these cases, the affordances of both layouts are the same─riders in both environments are afforded the opportunity to use the whole space of the car to sit, stand, and ride. But by changing the location of the doors, designers can reshape riders' perceptions of that space, which influences how and whether riders take advantage of this affordance. By moving the position of the subway car doors, in other words, designers can use the power of the built environment to shape rider behavior, getting riders to do something they would not otherwise do.
[7강- Exercise 8번:강한가족유대가지역경제에미치는영향]
In 1958 the American political scientist Edward Banfield advanced an influential thesis that attributed southern Italy's lower level of prosperity to stronger family ties in the region. He argued that more intense family ties diminished trust outside of one's kinship group, weakened cooperation in pursuit of a common public goal, and thereby reduced the level of economic prosperity in the region. In line with his thesis, recent evidence suggests that kinship ties do indeed differ significantly across Italian regions, as they do more generally across countries. Likewise, tighter nuclear family bonds do tend to adversely affect levels of social trust, political participation, the status of women in the workforce and geographic mobility. And since, as the Nobel Prize-winning American economist Kenneth Arrow noted, business deals often rely on trust while its absence harms trade, lower levels of trust outside of the family setting might have diminished the level of economic development in southern Italy compared to the north.
[7강- Exercise 9번:수력발전과관련된도전과제와기회]
Essentially, water is an inexhaustible source because once the water is used to produce electricity, it is usually returned to its original river or reservoir. Because of this, hydropower has great potential now and also into the future. Only 20 percent of hydroelectric potential has been developed within the United States; tapping into this potential, however, is often hindered by unsuitable terrains and large distances from needing communities. In addition, future projects do not necessarily require new locations or dams. Only 2,400 out of 80,000 dams in the U.S. currently produce electricity from hydroelectric power plants. Many of these existing dams could have advanced technologies installed to produce energy and increase efficiency. A study performed by the U.S. Department of Energy calculated that it would cost approximately $1,600 per kilowatt to add turbines to dams that currently lack electricity capabilities. With this data and the amount of potential future locations for hydroelectric power plants, the cost to retrofit the existing dams would be able to pay for themselves in just a short time. However, these attempts are complicated by the push for additional dam removals by local and national environmental groups.
[7강- Exercise 10번:집단어리석음]
It sometimes happens that the many make a worse decision than the individual. Collective intelligence has its counterpart: collective stupidity. In groups, our capacity for good judgment can be severely reduced. In his studies on group norms, the psychologist Solomon Asch long ago addressed many well-known instances of this phenomenon. To name one: if a majority of people embrace a manifestly false and idiotic theory, others will go along with it merely because of the power of conformity. To name another instance: the false virtues of brainstorming. Take a group of ten people and make them work together for half an hour on a project (like tourism slogans to promote a town, for example). At the same time, set another group to work in which each member works separately on the task. Gather up their reports: the proposals of the second group are much richer and more plentiful than the proposals of the first group. Put another way, sometimes the whole is less than the sum of its parts.
[7강- Exercise 11~12번:농기구의사용에따른성역할의구분]
In 1970, the Danish economist Ester Boserup hypothesised that variations in present-day attitudes towards the role of women in the workforce were a product of methods of cultivation in the pre-industrial era. Her argument was that, owing to differences in the nature of the soil and the prevailing crops across regions, farmers in some areas cultivated their fields with hoes and rakes, whereas in others they used ploughs harnessed to horses or oxen. Since using a plough and controlling the animals that pull it requires massive upper-body strength, men have had a significant physiological advantage over women in ploughing and women in these regions have been limited to housework during the course of human history. It was largely the suitability of land for the use of the plough, Boserup argued, that led to the division of labour along gender lines. Evidence from agricultural societies across the world supports Boserup's argument. Areas that used the plough have consistently had a greater division of labour within the household: men have been predominantly engaged in agriculture, whereas women have been mainly confined to housework. In regions that made use of hoes and rakes, meanwhile, men and women have tended to share the farm work─from land preparation to sowing and harvesting, as well as other tasks, such as ferrying water, milking cows, or collecting firewood─although most household work has remained predominantly in the domain of women.
[8강- Exercise 1번:자기이야기를들려주는것의중요성]
Telling stories of one's own is important for children and for those individuals close to them. Through reading and hearing real-life and fictional stories, children can direct their own life story, and there is power in learning through story and telling one's own story. When children tell stories themselves, they can be heard the way they want to be heard; children choose the words, drawings, and acts they want to use to express themselves. Children's self-created stories can help adults better understand and make children's thinking and knowledge visible to themselves and others. Narratives may even be a source of protection for young children unable to articulate their fears directly or needing safe mental spaces to nurture their hopes and dreams. Educators and families can work together to help children create stories that positively influence them and are a source of happiness and strength in their lives. A thoughtfully shared story can help a child better understand herself. Stories can help us realize that we are not alone. This knowledge can be a great comfort to a child.
[8강- Exercise 2번:긍정적착각과관계개선]
Positive illusion can help with facing inevitable threats to relationships. Most relationships are inevitably threatened by conflicts of interest or seductive alternatives, and solving such problems often requires a departure from one's own direct interests. For example, when a partner behaves badly, accommodation rather than revenge is more conducive to the stability of the relationship. Further, when partners' preferences are inconsistent, it is beneficial to sacrifice one's own interests for the partner's interests. Overall, positive belief systems motivate us to find available solutions to dilemmas found across relationships. Such systems promote persistence, by increasing pro-social motivation, and facilitating a willingness to invest oneself in a relationship. Thus, it is plausible that positive illusion may serve to enhance the health of relationships.
[8강- Exercise 3번:달에부여한신성(神性)]
The moon is undoubtedly the earliest divinity that humans worshipped, even before the sun, wind, thunder, ocean, and all the forces of nature. They observed its different phases, its changing forms, its white light illuminating the darkness, its growth and diminishment, then its disappearance and renewal. Hence they made it into a higher being, inhabiting the heavens and gifted with magical powers over all that lived on earth. They worshipped it in order to win its favor and prevent it from harming them. It was only later that the moon came to be paired with the sun, and later still that humans recognized it possessed no light of its own but only reflected the sun's light. From then on, it was more or less subordinate to the sun, becoming its wife, sister, or daughter, even while retaining its remarkable characteristics. Moreover, although it became a female principle in many cultures, in others it remained a male divinity. Even today, the lexicon attests to these differences. In German, for example, the word designating the moon (der Mond) is masculine in gender while the one designating the sun (die Sonne) is feminine.
[8강- Exercise 4번:소셜미디어와사교]
Key terms used to describe social media's functionality, such as the "social," "collaboration," and "friends," reflect the communalist jargon of early utopian visions of the Web as a space that inherently enhances social activity. In reality, the meanings of these words have increasingly been informed by automated technologies that direct human sociality. Therefore, the term "connective media" would be preferable over "social media." What is claimed to be "social" is in fact the result of human input shaped by computed output and vice versa─a sociotechnical ensemble whose components can hardly be told apart. The norms and values supporting the "social" image of these media remain hidden in platforms' technological textures. Not coincidentally, the same assumptions supporting the goal of making the Web more social─or, if you wish, of making sociality more technical―also support the ideology of making online sociality salable.
[8강- Exercise 5~6번:팬작품(fanwork)을바라보는시각과의의]
Culturally speaking, fans "borrow" from existing arts in any number of ways. The most visible of these practices for readers, in particular, is fan fiction, or stories written by "regular people" who have taken inspiration from a text and created a new narrative using components of that existing story-world. Ewan Morrison argues that "If one sees fanfic as 'the work of amateurs retelling existing stories,' then one would have to conclude that the number one book in the Middle Ages─the Bible─was a work of fanfic, as Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were non-professionals retelling the same story about the same character." Arguably, the stories told in the Bible had been transmitted via oral tradition for generations prior, but audiences were drawn to the tales at a visceral level, inciting retellings and embellishments before they were finally compiled into a written text. And, once the printed word became common and accessible, the possibility grew exponentially for people to pursue writing prompted by existing works. This is also true for other things, like paintings or architecture, that were crafted in response to another item. Fanworks, inspired by the things in which fans emotionally invest, are nothing new. The struggle is not in the practice itself; rather it is tied up with a complex relationship between the original author's text, the potential for the fan-made text to be confused with the original, and, obviously, the money that could migrate back and forth between the two.
[8강- Exercise 7번:북극곰의진화]
According to evolutionary biologists, polar bears evolved from an ancestor they shared with brown bears, including grizzlies, with which they have been known to crossbreed, producing fertile hybrids known as 'pizzlies'. The approximate date of divergence between the two species is still unclear, although the oldest known fossil of what's thought to be a polar bear jaw is about 100,000 years old, so they must have evolved prior to that; according to the latest DNA analysis, it was probably within the last 500,000 years or so. More than likely this occurred during a warm interglacial period, when the climate was mild enough for brown bears to move northwards. After the next ice age took a hold, most headed back south, but some, thanks to mutations in their DNA which code for hair colour, became adapted to the harsher conditions. Those with the most suitable adaptations, namely a lighter whiter coat for camouflage when hunting seals, were more likely to survive. Those that didn't, died. It was through this process of natural selection in action that the polar bear was born.
[8강- Exercise 8번:기술로인한스트레스]
Though innovation is meant to help improve the flow of work and daily life, technology has also been associated with feelings of anxiety and irritability, headaches, mental fatigue, lost productivity, and poor job performance. Tech-related stress has been termed "technostress," and as the name implies, refers to stress caused by the inability to adapt to or cope with technology in a healthy way. The technology itself is not the source of stress, but how people handle and react to it. Distraction and lack of focus due to the never-ending interruption of incoming texts, emails, phone calls, and social notifications has been called the epidemic of our digital age. People often feel stressed because they don't know how to manage the daily onslaught of resources and information made available on the web, leading to feelings of being overwhelmed with "information overload."
[8강- Exercise 9번:녹음공간의진화]
With the emergence of recording technology, a new form of musical space arose: the recording studio. This allowed artists to make music to be heard at other times and places. These places evolved along with the growing mobility of music itself. Recording enabled various forms of editing, including splicing (moving sections in time) and overdubbing (placing sections atop one another), as well as a growing range of opportunities for processing and manipulating sound. While recording studios supplied vast opportunities for shaping sonic expressions, they also presented new challenges, some of which were addressed via architectural gestures. In order for only the intended sounds to be recorded, studios were constructed of materials that inhibited sound transfer. Such attempts sometimes led to "dead" acoustic properties, however. In the 1950s and 1960s, then, studios began to construct "echo chambers" using materials that reflected sound, such as concrete and tiles, in order to simulate the sound of certain places, including, of course, the "live" sound of concert venues. The use of stereo systems also allowed recorded music to be organized as a sonic panorama, thus producing the sense of being in an environment where sounds came from different sources.
[8강- Exercise 10번:창조적실천에서감수하게되는모험]
Risk plays an interesting role in terms of creative practice. Pushing the boundaries or breaking rules may entail risks. The results of this may be fruitful and invigorating but they may also be disastrous or wasteful. Flirting with risk means that the outcome is not guaranteed but also that aspirations go beyond the known and familiar, beyond the standard. This pushing of boundaries takes place at many different levels from the production of single objects to a broader kind of experimentation with materials themselves, and it may therefore be identified as a mainstay of creativity at the everyday level. This kind of creative risk is illustrated by the comments made by a modern-day potter when confronted with a copy of the Skarpsalling vessel, usually considered the most beautiful and outstanding Neolithic vessel found in Denmark. In describing the vessel's qualities she said its shape was 'vibrating'. Asked to specify what she meant, she explained that the Neolithic potter had pushed the shape to its upmost, to just before it would collapse.
[8강- Exercise 11~12번:생명활동에서과시를통한특성전달]
In biology, signals have evolved to help organisms communicate otherwise unobservable characteristics. Take the black and yellow colours of a poison dart frog. This distinctive visual signal, in bold disregard of its camouflage, has been favoured by natural selection because it accurately indicates the frog's toxicity. ("Go on, eat me if you dare!") Similarly, a springbok's energetic leap, bounding into the air and lifting all four feet simultaneously, is a reliable signal that it's young and fit, so not worth chasing. Then we have the famed peacock, which illustrates its fitness through its glittering and luxurious tail. This expensive handicap serves no other purpose than to signal that a healthy male has resources to burn, boosting his attractiveness as a mate. Signals like these are favoured by natural selection so long as the costs are offset by the benefits. Critically, it is the cost or risk associated with this signal that is the most reliable way of confirming its truthfulness. If an old and tired springbok (a low-quality signaller) attempts to fake enthusiastic leaping (a high-quality signal), they will exhaust themselves, becoming vulnerable. As a result, low cost signals that are easy to fake are often unreliable cues of trustworthiness. Consistent with this, the eye-catchingly bright colouration of frogs has been found to correlate almost perfectly with their toxicity. Peacocks also don't just walk around telling peahens "I'm rich!" Any old bird can do that─they need to show it. When it comes to trust, talk is cheap.
[9강- Exercise 1번:사람과사물의인과관계의특징]
Causal relations often come in characteristic groups or clusters. For example, in thinking about two people, I might notice that, in contrast to a pair of billiard balls, they often causally act on each other at a distance. A remark to a person several feet away can cause that person to move quickly backward. Cause-and-effect relations for people have longer time lags than for balls. You do not move instantaneously after I speak, unlike cases in which one ball launches another. There is a noticeable lag. People move on their own without needing any external force. Simple balls do not spontaneously move. Self-generated motion conveys the strong impression that something inside the mover is causing the movement. People can move in irregular ways, darting this way and that. Balls move in smooth predictable paths unless something else intervenes. People interact contingently; balls do not. There is a back-and-forth rhythm to many human social interactions whether they be conversations, silent greetings, or hot pursuit. Taken together, several interacting causal relations distinguish the motions of people from those of simple solids.
[9강- Exercise 2번:현대민주주의와초기민주주의의비교]
Modern democracy evolved from early democracy, and this process began in England before first reaching a fuller extent─for free white males─in the United States. Modern democracy is a form of rule where political participation is broad but episodic: citizens participate by voting for representatives, but this occurs only at certain intervals, and there are few means of control other than the vote─representatives cannot be bound by mandates or instructions. All of this contrasts with early democracy. In early democracies, participation was often restricted to a smaller number of individuals, but for those who enjoyed the right, the frequency of participation was much higher. It was also the case that those who chose representatives could bind them with mandates, and individual localities could either reject central decisions or opt out of them. This created substantial blocking power and therefore a need for consensus. For this reason, there was less of a problem of "tyranny of the majority," whereas this is an issue with which all modern democracies must grapple.
[9강- Exercise 3번:사물의신뢰성과예측가능성]
To an important extent, we need things to work properly─to be predictable and dependable. We would give in to despair if too many failed to do their job. A world where things perform their proper function is a hospitable place. And what makes it hospitable is precisely its reliability and predictability. There is a point, however, beyond which this very flawlessness starts to induce a serious form of alienation. For when things work flawlessly, without friction, less and less is demanded of us. In the long run, this effortlessness is our undoing. It's not just that we become increasingly unnecessary (which would be bad enough), but that we become more and more like the things themselves. We unconsciously start copying them. Their predictability becomes ours, and so does their fundamental inertness. Near something that never changes its patterns, we too slide into a heavily patterned existence. At the limit, if nothing changes to attract our attention, we become indistinguishable from those things, and lose ourselves in their midst. Hospitability is admirable, but when a place becomes too hospitable, it turns positively hostile. [요약문] While predictability and dependability of things are desirable to a certain degree, a perfectly patterned world that doesn't require our active effort and distinctiveness becomes harmful to us.
[9강- Exercise 4번:뇌의불안극복과새로운신경경로]
One of the biggest challenges in overcoming fear is that, although the brain learns lessons quickly, it does not unlearn lessons quickly. Ever traveled by train? On every trip, trains obey the direction of the tracks. If an engineer wanted to take the train in a different direction, but lacked the track, it would not be possible. New tracks would be necessary to divert the train onto a new course. And once a train has a destination on a track, it chums with momentum. The challenge lies in laying the new track. Like most goals in life, it would take patience, effort, and commitment to build that new path. There is a similar challenge in facing anxiety and changing your brain's chemistry. In other words, creating a new neural pathway that is unafraid of what you currently fear is going to take some effort. But it can absolutely be done. You can change your brain's response to your anxiety-provoking stimulus by creating a new neural pathway.
[9강- Exercise 5~7번:주인의뇌전증발작을예측하는고양이Tee Cee]
Keenly observant and alert to the slightest changes in their surroundings, cats could make wonderful guardians. So far, however, they've firmly rejected any such callings. All save for one. The cat in question is named Tee Cee, and he has earned international fame for his exceptional ability to predict epileptic seizures─a skill he's used to ease the suffering of his grateful owner. Ironically, however, the English cat had endured quite a bit at the hands of a human, who stuffed Tee Cee and his siblings in a box and tossed it in a river. Tee Cee was rescued and taken to an adoption center, where he became the pet of Michael Edmonds, a Sheffield man who suffered from an extremely dangerous and unpredictable form of epilepsy. The disorder causes sudden, violent seizures that strike without warning. The problem was so serious that he couldn't leave home unescorted, for fear of having an attack at some unexpected time or place. Edmonds' new cat provided timely help. Tee Cee took a great deal of interest in his new owner─particularly, it seemed, when he was about to seize. This was remarkable, because Edmonds displays no symptoms prior to attacks. Or at least, none detectable by humans. "We noticed that Tee Cee began staring at my stepfather prior to a seizure and then ran to my mother to let her know all is not well, acting as an early warning system," Edmonds' stepdaughter, Samantha Laidler, told the BBC. The behavior was so unexpected that it took a while for family members to make the connection between Tee Cee's staring sessions and Edmonds' epileptic fits. But once the link was established, the fame of the former stray spread far and wide. In 2006 he was nominated for a prestigious Rescue Cat of the Year Award ― quite an accomplishment for a cat who was once, literally, thrown away as garbage.
[9강- Exercise 8번:작품의손실을막는데도움이되는소유권]
Valuable cultural works disappear for all sorts of reasons. Government censorship can remove works from the market; books and records go out of print when they are considered commercially unviable; films─from The Interview to Disney's Song of the South―are hidden from view for reasons that range from political controversies to pure marketing strategies. Works can also be lost to accidents, natural disasters, and plain old inattention. Ownership helps guard against those losses. When we own our copies, we have greater incentives to make efforts to preserve them, and it's harder for publishers and government actors to erase them. And when works are distributed widely on secondary markets through resale and lending, the risk of loss is reduced. Even though we all benefit from the preservation of our shared cultural heritage, outside of the small circle of archivists and cultural historians, few of us give it much thought. So when we choose to license rather than own, we are chipping away at preservation efforts.
[9강- Exercise 9번:유리의형성과정]
Look around you right now, and there's a good chance you'll find yourself in the presence of some glass. Whatever the item─a drinking glass, glass lenses, a window pane─it was once a molten liquid that reached temperatures of over 1700'C and was then allowed to cool. During this process, the molecules never achieved a structured arrangement but instead remained as disordered as they had been in the liquid state. A molecular snapshot of the liquid state and the glass state would appear almost identical, although there is more crowding in the glass thanks to the contraction that occurs during cooling. As this happens, molecules have a harder time slipping quickly past one another, so they begin to slow down, and as they do this, they make stronger connections. It's a bit like how it's easier to grab the hand of someone who is walking slowly past you than to grab the hand of someone driving past you in a convertible going 150 kilometres per hour, which is not advisable. As the cooling continues, so, too, does this process until at last the molecules become fixed in place and glass is formed.
[9강- Exercise 10번:협업에대한단백질과인간의비교]
Proteins are among the most important molecules we possess, because they are also among the most collaborative. They play distinct roles in helping the body to interpret changes, communicate them and decide on actions as a result. Our bodies work in large part because our proteins know their own role, appreciate that of their peers and act accordingly. They work as part of a team, but through the expression of entirely individual personalities and capabilities. Dynamic yet defined, individual within a team context, proteins can offer a new model for how we organize and interact as people. Like humans, proteins respond to their environment, communicate information, make decisions and then put them into action. But unlike us, proteins are actually very good at doing this: working in an instinctively collaborative way without letting personality clashes, personal problems or office politics become obstacles. And they achieve this not by trying to 'fit in' with their environment, but by aligning and making use of their various chemistries: embracing the complementarity of contrasting 'types'. [요약문] Humans within an organization often attempt to conform to their environment, but protein molecules collaborate through utilizing their unique characteristics and abilities.
[9강- Exercise 11번:도파민의특징과역할]
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that runs the brain's reward and pleasure center. It enables us to see rewards and pushes us to go achieve them. It is also highly addictive─all addictions cause a powerful surge in dopamine. When we achieve goals, dopamine makes us feel pleasure. Our brains develop tolerance for dopamine, meaning that as time goes on, increasingly higher levels of dopamine are needed to get the same level of pleasure. Addictive, novelty-seeking behaviors are the result of high levels of dopamine. This is how one gets addicted to achieving goals. The neurons that fire together get wired together in our brains, meaning stress and the dopamine rush that goes along with it get connected. This might explain why some chronically stressed people don't celebrate achieving goals─they are constantly looking for the next goal to get their next amount of dopamine. Their employees might feel discouraged because their achievements go overlooked or unappreciated. These managers may artificially create crises to justify the elevated level of stress and dopamine their brains have gotten used to.
[9강- Exercise 12~14번:품위를잃지않은아버지의복수]
When David was three years old, his parents opened a restaurant in the small town of Weatherford, Texas─the first Asian restaurant in the whole county. His dad, an immigrant from Thailand, saw it as an incredible business opportunity. He was right: loyal customers kept their little family restaurant open for nearly forty years. Growing up as one of the few Asian American kids in his school wasn't easy. Even though David made some of his best memories and strongest friendships in Weatherford, there were a few immature kids who mocked him only because he looked different from them. And there was a boy, Olly, who was one year older than David, and he was the one whom David hated the most. Olly would say mean things to David, making fun of him. However, Olly's family were regular customers of the restaurant that David's family owned. One day, David finally told his dad about Olly and all the mean things he had said. His dad said, "Honey, it breaks my heart to hear that. I know how upset and sad you've been." So David was hoping that Olly was going to get his punishment. He didn't think his dad was going to cause a scene and throw the family out, but couldn't he at least hide some hot pepper in his pad thai for his son's revenge? Instead, the next time Olly's family came in to eat, David's father was just as polite as ever. David watched them clean their plates and leave with satisfied sighs. After they left, he asked his father why he didn't kick them out. With a smile, he answered, "I got my revenge. By giving that family quality service and delicious food, I elevated my family above their ugliness. Remember, son. Even when people say ugly things to you, you shouldn't let them take your dignity."
[10강- Exercise 1번:공룡과의공존에대한잘못된확신]
In American colleges, one student out of two still recently believed that 'cavemen' had to defend themselves against dinosaurs. Prehistorians often deplore the ignorance of the public, and express their surprise that even those who seem interested in the past are inclined to accept the most unsound ideas. Yet the struggle of humans against dinosaurs could be considered a kind of knowledge─one that is erroneous―rather than simply the manifestation of ignorance. An erroneous idea does not become less absurd merely for being shared by half the population; it becomes nevertheless interesting as a social phenomenon. In fact, the image of the caveman fighting dinosaurs is not entirely devoid of factual elements: nobody will deny that the dinosaurs really existed, just as prehistoric humans did. On the other hand, the origin of the deep-seated conviction that our ancestors shared the Earth with the dinosaurs remains obscure, because human remains have never been found in the same geological formations as dinosaur bones, and no scholar has risked suggesting that our ancestors lived alongside these giant reptiles. It was non-experts, rather than scientists, who forged this idea, thus leaving us an excellent illustration of ordinary thinking at work.
[10강- Exercise 2번:표기체계의발전과소리의표현]
Writing as we know it today was not a single technology stemming from a single invention. It's a combination of various innovations which took place over a long period, with differing effects in different parts of the world. But the stages of evolution it went through are very similar in all the different places. The earliest incarnations of all these writing systems were pictographic. They consisted of simplified drawings acting as stylised representations of concrete entities: a house, a river, a drawing of the head of a cow to represent a cow. As their use spread, so they began to accumulate broader meanings based on the context of this use and to be combined together to create ideograms. Bird+egg, for example, represented fertility. But the most significant stage in their development was when they began to be used to represent not simply ideas but also sounds. Once this happened, writing could imitate spoken language rather than operating as a separate, parallel system of communication. It was this transition which led to the fully flexible systems we have today.
[10강- Exercise 3번:도움을구할때느끼는불편함]
People tend to overestimate how harshly others will judge them. This dynamic may apply to the case of help-seeking. Even a small request can make the help-seeker feel self-conscious, embarrassed, and guilty. In our research, we have found that the anxiety help-seekers experience over how their request will come across is surprising to potential helpers who do not know what all the fuss is about. In one study, we asked two samples of potential helpers (teaching assistants and peer advisors) to estimate the number of students who would seek their help during a single semester. The peer advisors overestimated by over 60%, and the teaching assistants by 20%, the number of students who would ask them for help. This prediction error emerged even though the peer advisors had been students themselves the prior year, and the majority of teaching assistants had worked as teaching assistants before (often for the same class). Nevertheless, their past experience as help-seekers offered no clues in predicting others' future help-seeking behavior. [요약문] Potential helpers mistakenly predicted the number of help-seekers that would visit them because they failed to see that help-seeking behavior might make help-seekers feel uncomfortable.
[10강- Exercise 4번:시간사용을통한상황통제]
The effective use of time is one of the ultimate ways to display authority, even when you don't have it. Whoever controls time controls the situation in most instances. They will always remind anyone who wants to meet with them that their time is valuable. However, there may be situations where you will want to reverse your use of tight time tactics. Let's say you have agreed to meet with one of your peers to discuss a difficult situation that has developed between your two respective departments. You need more help from your peer than she needs from you to get things resolved, even though you've told her your time is limited. When she enters your office at the appointed hour, take your watch off ostentatiously, and place it face down on your desk. Say, "My time belongs to you for as long as you need it." Watch the cooperation level of your peer go up exponentially at the outset of your meeting. You'll be able to get anything you want from her.
[10강- Exercise 5~7번:가난한고아들에게친절을베푼Mrs. Annabel]
There lived three poor orphans named Havin, Mabel, and Anthony. They were siblings, and they loved each other so much. In their town lived Mrs. Annabel, a widow, who was the town's doctor. She was a lovely woman, but she had no children. Every morning Havin and his siblings would go to the town square to beg for food and clothes. Mrs. Annabel loved Havin's little sister, Mabel, and gave her big apples every day. One day, Mrs. Annabel needed help to organize her garden, and Havin and his siblings offered to help. Together, they planted vegetables and flowers. "Oh, they are so delightful," Mrs. Annabel said to herself. Havin and his siblings were very good kids, and they were loved by everyone in town. Then one day, Mabel became seriously ill. Havin carried her on his back and ran down to the town's clinic. Mrs. Annabel immediately took Mabel from Havin and placed her on the examination table. Little Mabel lay weakly on the table. "I don't want to die," she cried weakly. "Come on, baby, you will be just fine!" Mrs. Annabel assured her. After examining her, Mrs. Annabel brought out a needle and an apple. She said to Mabel, "I have an apple for you, but I'll only give it to you after you receive this injection." Mabel looked at the needle with fright. "I hate needles, Mrs. Annabel." "I know, darling. But if you promise to be brave, I'll take you to my house and give you some ice cream." Mrs. Annabel assured her. Mabel lay bravely on the bed and allowed Mrs. Annabel to do her job. She eventually woke up feeling better. After Mabel's recovery, Havin went to Mrs. Annabel's clinic. "Ma'am," he called out as he knocked softly on her door. "Do you need something?" she asked him. "Thank you for taking care of Mabel, but I don't have any money to pay her bills," he spoke shyly. "Don't worry, dear Havin. This one is all on me," Mrs. Annabel said to him. Havin thanked her for her kindness. Two months later, Mrs. Annabel adopted Havin and his two siblings. She loved them like her own children and took good care of them. She took them to the town's school. They did well in school and won prizes every school year. Mrs. Annabel was proud of them, and they lived happily ever after.
[10강- Exercise 8번:태도양극화의특징]
Attitude polarization is currently increasing, at least in North America and Europe. The most important reason for the growing polarization is probably increasingly selective exposure to information. People on both sides of an ideological debate have no difficulty at all finding like-minded websites that support their viewpoints, often in even more radical ways. Getting in touch with others sharing their beliefs makes them even more confident in their viewpoints. In other words, while one could expect that the availability of a broad ideological spectrum of media information could foster engagement with views diverging from one's own, experimental research suggests that it actually leads to increased affective polarization. People's in-group biases are strengthened by the new opportunities to get in touch with like-minded people. Confirmation bias influences which sources of information people utilize; in fact, there seems to be a vicious circle involved: Increases in polarization cause stronger confirmation biases, which, in turn, lead to more biased information search. Elective exposure to political information is also increased by customizability technology creating so-called "filter bubbles."
[10강- Exercise 9번:메시지전달수단의역사]
The desire to communicate is a part of being human. We have always needed to express ourselves but it took a long time before we could do so successfully. About 100,000 years ago, we developed the capacity to communicate using speech. About 40,000 years ago, we drew pictures on the walls of caves. Through the ages, we've used various systems to send messages like smoke signals, semaphores (flags), pigeons, and human messengers, each of which had its own advantages and disadvantages. Each system worked when the conditions were just right, but was limited at least some of the time. For instance, smoke signals and semaphore systems did not work at night because they depended on sunlight for the receiver to see the signal. Messengers were slow and could be captured during times of conflict or war. Pigeons could carry very small messages but were susceptible to natural predators and severe weather.
[10강- Exercise 10번:뇌의부위별기능과그경계]
Is the brain an assembly of distinct components, each with a defined and separate function? One of the many difficulties in studying how the brain works is precisely because it is not arranged in this way. That does not mean that one cannot assign specific functions to anatomically recognisable parts of the brain. Indeed one can: for example, the cerebral cortex that forms most of the outside of the brain and gives it its typically wrinkled or folded appearance has areas that we know are concerned with identifiable actions. One is responsible for generating movement, another for analysing incoming visual information and so on. Similar functional boundaries have been recognised in other parts of the brain. That is not an issue. What is, however, is whether there are clearly defined boundaries between these areas, either anatomically─where does one begin, or the other end?─or functionally─is there a circumscribed area of the brain that has an equally precise function? The answer to both questions is a resounding 'no.' [요약문] Although it is possible to attribute functions to anatomical parts of the brain, the anatomical and functional boundaries of those parts are not clear-cut.
[10강- Exercise 11번:사회운동집단에서의관행]
Social movements where a community expresses a desire for change―and all social life─are spaces of orderly interaction operating through recurring practices. These routines constitute the group style. Actions are repeated and become accepted through that repetition. Individuals must be able to foresee the likely responses of others and adjust accordingly. I refer to these stabilizing forces as circuits of action. While these assumptions about how others will respond are sometimes upended, to be useful, expectations must frequently be met. Nowhere is this more salient than in social movements, where coordination is crucial. Interaction is filtered through the collective awareness of what participants believe is appropriate. Offering feeling words after meetings ― typically positive ones ― serves as a ritual that expresses both individual feelings and collective sentiment. Circuits of action incorporate the rules of the interaction order and the content of group cultures in practices that are anticipated and comforting. However, for interaction to be orderly within a collaborative group, negotiations and adjustments are essential, building relationships that are flexible but durable.
[10강- Exercise 12~14번: Eli Manning과자신감]
On August 17, 2011, New York Giants quarterback Eli Manning sat for a live ESPN radio interview after his practice during the Giants training camp. When asked if he was a "Top 10, Top 5" quarterback, Manning said, "I think I am." And then when asked specifically if he was on the same level as New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady, Manning paused and then said, "Yeah, I consider myself in that class ... and Tom Brady is a great quarterback." Manning's statements touched off a lot of media excitement. Columnists and bloggers wrote at length about how indefensible Manning's opinion was. How in the world could Manning, with only one Super Bowl championship and MVP award and only two Pro Bowl appearances on his resume, compare himself to Brady, with six Pro Bowl appearances, three championships, and two NFL MVP awards on his resume? Brady was coming off an excellent 2010 season, throwing thirty-six touchdown passes and only four interceptions, while Manning had thrown a league-high twenty-five interceptions. How could Manning think of himself as Brady's peer? Fast-forward from that training camp interview in August 2011 to February 5, 2012, to the conclusion of that season's Super Bowl. Eli Manning is standing at the center of Lucas Oil Stadium lifting the championship trophy and receiving his second Super Bowl MVP award. Manning's New York Giants have just come from behind to defeat Tom Brady's favored New England Patriots. In the closing minutes of the fourth quarter, with the Giants losing, Manning engineered the 88-yard game-winning drive, making four crucial throws. Eli Manning showed the world that his statement the previous summer was simply the honest expression of a confident competitor. Even the additional Super Bowl MVP award hasn't stopped football experts from debating whether Eli Manning is indeed a "Top 10, Top 5 quarterback" in the same class as Tom Brady. Arguments about players go on endlessly. What isn't up for debate is that Eli performed at the highest level in a very competitive profession's most demanding and important position for many years until his retirement. He made the best of his talent and his preparation by building his confidence, protecting that confidence, and playing confidently. He became as good as he could be.
[11강- Exercise 1번:인간의적응가능성의특징]
In the study of human adaptability, the ecosystem is the total situation in which adaptability occurs. Because human populations have spread throughout the earth, this adaptability varies a great deal. A population in a specific ecosystem adjusts to environmental conditions in ways that reflect both present and past conditions. A desert population that has existed in that environment for several millennia will differ significantly in its responses to desert conditions from a population that migrated there only in the past generation. A population that has existed longer in a particular environment is more likely than a recently settled population to have developed physiological and even genetic characteristics for coping with environmental constraints, such as hypoxia. The more recent inhabitants will have physiological and cultural adjustments attuned to another environment. Adjusting to the new environment may take several generations, and the final result may or may not resemble the adjustments of the original inhabitants. This is particularly true when native populations are available. The newcomers may borrow some of the practices of the original inhabitants in order to achieve a satisfactory adjustment to their new habitat.
[11강- Exercise 2번:가능성에대한제약]
We inhabit worlds that are not only full of possibility but also foster a variety of possible selves. In using this concept, we should recognize the considerable constraints placed on realizing the possible and, at times, even being able to envision it. These limitations are, on the one hand, physical and biological; for example, for as much as we would like to be able to fly, this is not possible given our anatomy and the gravity on earth. Such constraints are transcended in our imagination, and, indeed, visions of the physically impossible inspired generations, across the centuries, from the ancient Greeks' stories of Icarus to Leonardo da Vinci's sketches of flying machines. Ultimately, the impossible became at least partially possible, and humanity is capable today not only of traveling by air but also of reaching outer space. But, even more significant than physical constraints are the social and cultural ones, both imposed by others and self-imposed. These limitations placed on discovering and exploring the possible can be explicit, like in the case of living under harsh totalitarian governments, or implicit, exemplified by the pervasive power of discourses and social representations to shape our thinking without us realizing it.
[11강- Exercise 3번:지나친자신감의영향]
Some researchers suggest that although successful performance leads to increased efficacy, subsequent levels of performance may decrease due to evaluation errors. More specifically, research has shown that overconfidence may impede performance due to the overestimation of the accuracy of one's knowledge. For example, highly confident individuals are found to overestimate the precision of their answers and thus underestimate the potential consequences of their decisions. This is particularly relevant for those who possess the power to impact many, such as executives, as the relationship between power and confidence is particularly relevant to understanding how overconfidence may impact executive decision making. More specifically, it was found that the psychological experience of power is related to overconfidence in decision making, which in turn may lead to adverse consequences for the organization and its environment. [요약문] When individuals overrate the accuracy of their knowledge, there might be a negative impact on their performance and decision making, especially in the case of highly influential people who are overconfident in their decision making.
[11강- Exercise 4번:변화를중시하는현대의실용적인태도]
Modern philosophies since the rise of evolutionary theory in the 19th century have come to give change a more central place. They see constant change in the universe, in the animal world, in populations and social forms. Even the most abstract philosophies have begun to think more in terms of process and time and the flow of events, and less in terms of a fixed essence and a rational nature to the world and man. Modern practical attitudes reflect the actual change that a constantly revolutionized technology brings in human living. Unlike the medieval cathedral, built to last beyond the memories of men, a modern skyscraper is built to be replaced in due time. A home is not an ancestral dwelling, but a rapid construction that may not survive the last mortgage payment -─if you have not moved away by then. The number of people who live today in the house in which they were born is small, and the number of those who glory in the fact is smaller still. We simplify everything and turn to the latest model.
[11강- Exercise 5~7번:아들Ted를위한Jackson씨의크리스마스선물]
Mr. Jackson was so excited about a very special gift he had purchased for his five-year-old son, Ted. He had saved up his money and bought him a combination compact disc-cassette tape player. He was sure his son had no idea what was in this package under the Christmas tree. Ted had asked for this, but had also told his father that he knew he could not afford to get it and that was all right. Two days before Christmas, Mr. Jackson realized that Ted did not have any CDs for the player. It would not be right to get a present for Ted that he would not be able to enjoy. So Mr. Jackson took the package from under the tree and took one final shopping trip to find some CDs Ted would like and that would fit in the player. Ted noticed that the package was missing and asked his father about its absence. Mr. Jackson came up with the perfect alibi. "You see, son, Santa wanted to look at your present and bring you the perfect presents to go with what I was getting you. After he looked at it, he wrapped it up again in different wrapping paper and just gave it back to me when I returned home from shopping." Ted appeared to listen with wonder and delight as his father spun this outrageous tale. Mr. Jackson was very relieved to see his son's bright face. Later that night, Mr. Jackson was walking past his son's room. He noticed that Ted was kneeling beside his bed, praying. Mr. Jackson was touched by the sight and peeked through the crack in the door and listened to his son's prayer. He prayed: "God, you know I already prayed to you once tonight, but I just have to say one more thing to you without Dad here. I don't know why he blamed Santa for swiping my CD player, but I just want to thank you for getting him to bring it back."
[11강- Exercise 8번:유기체의경향평가]
Simple organisms like bacteria use general algorithms built into their genomes to assess trends. For example, E. coli have algorithms that say it is wasteful to produce the enzymes for processing lactose when there isn't much lactose about. These rules have been installed in the organism's genome over millions of generations by natural selection and have persisted because individuals that inherited this algorithm were more likely to survive and reproduce. But in order to know when to apply the rules, bacteria also need knowledge of what is going on right now. Are lactose levels rising or falling? Identifying trends requires sensors. But it also requires some form of memory so you can compare the situation now with the situation a moment ago. Indeed, it may be that memory exists primarily to enable future thinking. Recent neurological studies have shown that in organisms with nervous systems, memory and future thinking are handled by the same parts of the brain, which may explain why people who lose the ability to remember vividly also lose the ability to imagine alternative futures.
[11강- Exercise 9번:길거리시장을향한부정적시선]
Despite the significant importance of marketplaces as the core of economic and socio-cultural transactions in the city, local authorities often tend to problematise them as unhygienic and unhealthy urban environments. Early examples of this situation were in the major European cities in the mid-19th century, where poverty, overpopulation and pollution were the main problems in inner-city areas. For example, in London, street markets were a part of the vivid urban scene in the 19th century supplying cheap food and products. However, they were unorganised and naturally growing. The city authorities have viewed these markets as components of the city's degraded living conditions. They introduced structural spatial changes to address this problem, including removing street markets and developing new and enlarged indoor marketplaces. These new indoor markets functioned as an urban renewal tool as well, as their construction required the demolition of existing building blocks and reorganisation of streets.
[11강- Exercise 10번:복잡한지능을지닌생물종의유일함]
It is interesting to note that out of all of the species that have ever existed on the Earth, only one has had complex intelligence. One could argue that this is naturally the case, since only one species could be the first to develop intelligence and the existence of that species might preclude another intelligent species from ever developing. This is a false argument, however. A better comparison comes about from noting that, through the last few hundred million years, there have been a large number of species that might have evolved into intelligent creatures but did not. If intelligence is such a beneficial trait, allowing a species to compete more effectively in its environment, then one might expect that many different species would develop intelligence. Birds have existed longer than mammals, and they did not develop intelligence. Dinosaurs reigned for over 100 million years and there is no evidence to suggest that they might have developed intelligence. Out of all of the species that might have developed intelligence, only one did. [요약문] For all the species that have ever existed, the development of intelligence has been a sole event, suggesting that the presence of this trait is not necessarily essential for a species to compete better in its environment.
[11강- Exercise 11번:암컷을위한수컷베짜기새의집짓기]
Among vertebrates, birds are among the most accomplished of architects. In some cases, as in several African weaver bird species, males alone build the nest and use the finished product to advertise for a female, and when one is willing to approach, she will examine it in detail and then decide whether to take the male as her partner. Weaver nests are not tied to branches but free-hanging intricate structures that have only a small opening. The male first has to pass the test regarding the quality of the nest site, and if she is satisfied, the partner comes as part of the package. The female behaves more like a tenant and does not even look at him but will inspect the nest very thoroughly. Consideration is first and foremost given to the nest site and its quality and the territory (where applicable). This may seem a little callous, but the fact that the male is able to build such a nest or have a good territory is a statement of desirable qualities, experience and assets.
[11강- Exercise 12~14번: Willie Author의가축운송과소탈출사건]
It was like any other normal day─sale day at the livestock barn. The sale was over, and all the livestock was gone with one final load to move. Willie Author had gotten his friend Tom started in transporting livestock about a year earlier, and whenever they met at barn sales, they would talk about the trips they had made. He had been transporting cows for many years without any out-of-the-ordinary events, but little did he know that this would turn out to be a trip he would never forget. With the help of Tom, he had loaded out and was headed to another sale barn in the neighboring state of Mississippi. About halfway into the trip and a little tired, he decided to stop for coffee and a rest from driving. He pulled into a little cafe that was a usual stopping place along the trip. When he walked into the cafe, he noticed two young men laughing and talking loud like they might be just a little bit drunk, but he didn't think too much about it. He sat down at a table and ordered coffee while making conversation with a few locals. One was a deputy on duty that soon finished his coffee and started out the door. No one had paid much attention to the two young men that had just walked out of the cafe. The deputy noticed the gate open on the cattle trailer and hollered to Willie Author to tell him, and about that time, a cow came running by the door. He knew right off what had happened. The two young men had decided they would have some fun, so when they walked by the trailer, one of the men just opened the gate and let those cows out right there in the middle of town. Willie Author said it took till the middle of the next day for him and the police to get all those cows rounded up and loaded again. He went straight to a store and bought a chain and a lock. He said, "I bet that won't happen to me again."
[12강- Exercise 1번:공급망사이의외부효과처리비용의전가]
Because supply networks do not operate in isolation from each other, they may generate connections, synergies, and conflicts. Almond growers in Southern California, where little water is available, inevitably find themselves clashing with other food industries to secure water rights. The runoff of fertilizers from agricultural fields that flows into rivers and eventually to the sea may create sustainability issues for industries such as fish farming or fishing. However, farmers who use fertilizers to increase their yields and improve their incomes do not cover the expenses necessary to clean polluted waters. These examples show how productive factors in one supply network can easily turn into negative externalities in others. By negative externalities, economists and environmental experts mean the side effects caused by one industry that are not taken into account in determining its costs of operation, such as pollution and public health issues generated by the production or consumption of certain goods. By not having to pay to take care of these side effects, an industry can keep its prices low, transferring costs to other actors or industries that unwillingly find themselves dealing with the externalities and, often, picking up the tab.
[12강- Exercise 2번:행성탐사차에대한자율성부여]
Rovers have made important discoveries on and increased our understanding of Mars. However, a major obstacle to scientific exploration has been the communication link between the rover and the operations team on Earth. It can take as much as half an hour for sensor information to be sent from Mars to Earth and for commands to be sent from Earth to Mars. In addition, guidance to rovers needs to be planned in advance because there are limited upload and download windows with Mars due to the positions of orbiters serving as information relays between the planets. Recent research has suggested that the efficiency of science exploration missions can be improved by a factor of five through the introduction of greater levels of autonomy. Human operators would still provide high-level guidance on mission objectives, but the rover would have the flexibility to select its own science targets using the most up-to-date information. In addition, it would be desirable for rovers to respond appropriately to various hazards and system failures without human intervention.
[12강- Exercise 3번:토착집단이직면한기후불평등]
One form of climate injustice arises from the way that scientists and other climate activists have tried to motivate personal action or policy change to reduce climate-forcing emissions. The call to action on climate is almost always sounded as an appeal to save the world from environmental disaster. This way of framing the ethical issues ignores the fact that for many poor and indigenous peoples around the world, the disaster has already occurred. They are currently involved in picking up the pieces and adapting to a world in which their traditional ways of life are no longer possible. In presenting climate justice as the attempt to avoid some future disaster, climate activists fail to recognize the plight of people who are suffering today. This is a failure of justice in recognition that ignores and even conceals injustices currently being suffered by indigenous groups. It continues a pattern of marginalization that such groups have experienced since the early days of colonization. [요약문] The way scientists and climate activists portray the ethical issues of climate change as something that relates to a future disaster overlooks the injustices that poor and indigenous peoples are presently experiencing, and it contributes to sustaining their alienation.
[12강- Exercise 4번:자기조절과자유의지]
Self-regulation should qualify almost by definition as at least a limited form of free will. That is, without self-regulation, the organism cannot help but act on the first or strongest impulse that arises in response to a situation. With self-regulation, the organism can override that response, allowing a different impulse or response to take over. Overriding the first response frees the person from having to respond in that particular way and, if only briefly, creates a gap or uncertainty that opens the door for other possibilities. This is not to say that the eventual response is necessarily better than the first or that it is itself not the product of an inner causal sequence of responses. But the fact of changing away from the first to enable the second should constitute a kind of freedom, and it would almost certainly be recognized as such. And humans who could exert that much free will, who could override one response in order to permit another, would probably survive and reproduce better than their rivals who couldn't.
[12강- Exercise 5~7번:자녀에게준교훈]
One day Tony decided to have a family movie day with his kids. He put the largest television up on the family room stage while his four kids, including his youngest Joe, set up chairs in front of it. To make the room dark like a real movie theater, the whole family taped tinfoil on all the windows to block any light. Tony made a small "box office" outside the family room, with a turnstile made from a cut-off broom handle in the doorway. He also made individual tickets that would be sold through the box office. That evening all the kids lined up at the box office to buy their tickets, giggling in anticipation. Once the audience was seated according to the seat number on each ticket, Tony switched off all the lights. It felt like they were at an actual movie theater! About halfway through the movie, little Joe got up and left the theater to visit the bathroom. When he came back to the family room, he saw his dad waiting by the turnstile. Joe started to slide past him, but Tony held the broom handle down so he couldn't lift it. "Ticket, please!" he said in a polite voice. Joe smirked up at him. "Very funny." But when he tried to move past the fake turnstile, Tony held it firmly in place. "Sir," he repeated, ''I'll need to see your ticket in order to let you in." Joe felt around in both pockets, but there was no ticket. "Come on, Dad. You know I had a ticket because you sold me one before the movie started!" He couldn't believe his dad was holding him up. "All right, sir," Tony said. "But next time remember your ticket stub so there's proof that you had it. Okay?" Then he let him through. Tony's gentle but firm teasing of Joe over the ticket wasn't just a joke. Although the kids had a lot of freedom in their daily lives, he still expected them to have a sense of personal responsibility for their actions. The lesson Joe learned with the lost movie ticket was that he had to be accountable. Tony, of course, knew that he had a ticket for the movie. The happy sphere in which the family existed was safe and trusting, but the real world wouldn't be so forgiving. Tony wanted his kids to be ready for it.
[12강- Exercise 8번:협상에서상대를이해해야할필요성]
Before you even think about the ploys you may encounter in a negotiation and the tactics you may need to use to counter those ploys and to achieve your negotiation objectives, you need to know who and what you're up against. Negotiations are 60% planning and preparation, 20% negotiating, and 20% timing, so making the investment in understanding your worthy adversary, the vendor, is a clear choice. While "adversary" may be a strong term in this era of "win-win," ― no matter how much you spin it ― vendors definitely have competing objectives with contract professionals such as yourself. Vendors want to maximize revenue, and you only want to pay a fair price. Vendors want to minimize their risk under a contract, and you want the vendor to bear a reasonable amount of the risk. Vendors want to be flexible and you want commitments in writing. And that's just a few of the conflicting goals.
[12강- Exercise 9번:인간의비타민C섭취]
Ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, is an essential component of the human diet. Yet your cat, your dog or your sheep, goat, or pet rat doesn't have the same need to consume it in their food. They can make it themselves, having the necessary enzymes to synthesize it. The reason why it is a vitamin for humans is that, sometime in our primate past, our ancestors lost the enzyme required to synthesize ascorbic acid. This ancestor wasn't careless; it didn't actually lose the enzyme. Rather, there was a mutation in the gene for the particular enzyme, and this change in the gene altered the enzyme's structure, such that it was no longer able to do its job of making ascorbic acid molecules. However, although it could no longer make ascorbic acid molecules, there was no disadvantage to this ancestor because it was already consuming plenty of ascorbic acid in its food. At that particular time, ascorbic acid went from being an optional component of this animal's diet to being an essential component. This was the moment that ascorbic acid became vitamin C.
[12강- Exercise 10번:범주지식에대한아이들의사후확신편향]
One study taught four- and five-year-olds novel facts about animals, such as that tiger stripes provide "camouflage." Most of the children did not know any of the facts, yet when later asked how long they had known the just-learned information, they often claimed they had always known it or had known for as long as they could remember. Adults can make similar mistakes through hindsight bias, but children err much more frequently. However, even when children fail, they reveal sophisticated assumptions about the nature of knowledge itself. They commit the "knew it all along" effect more often for statements about categories of things than for statements about individuals (Dogs get sick after eating carbamates vs. Last night, this dog got sick after eating carbamates). This category effect reflects an early belief that category knowledge is more likely to be common knowledge. If you think a certain kind of knowledge is more likely to be widely shared, you tend to assume you have always known it as well. [요약문] When children are asked about just-learned information, they tend to assert that they have known it all along, which is especially prominent for category knowledge compared to individual knowledge, reflecting their beliefs that a certain kind of knowledge is more likely to be shared.
[12강- Exercise 11번:자신의성격을이해하는것의이점]
A key to social achievement, both personally and professionally, is someone understanding their own personality before they attempt to analyze others'. Assessing personality can help someone learn where they can push themselves and where their absolute limits are. For example, introverts tend to thrive on quiet, alone time. They often need time to process the day and think through upcoming tasks. Knowing this, an introvert can limit their social exposure so they are never overworked when interacting with others. They can schedule times in the day to sit in quiet reflection and gather their thoughts before going back into the world. Extroverts, however, thrive on interacting with others. If they were stuck in the house alone all day, it would likely be a horrible day for them. Even extroverts who are shy in conversations can meet their social needs by going to public places. Sitting in a coffee shop or walking around a mall can simulate the interactive experience and might quell the extrovert's need for other people.
[12강- Exercise 12~14번:자동차편승여행자Harry]
Carlos was driving home from a day of shopping. As he was coming around the bend of the road, he noticed a little gentleman who had to be in his mid-70's. He was nicely dressed in a yellow shirt and dress pants, but what really stood out was that he was standing on his tiptoes with this right thumb straight up in the air. He had a look of urgency on his face. Carlos stopped and asked him if he needed any help. Carlos thought he might have broken down somewhere. He looked serious and yelled over to Carlos, "Can you take me to the tavern down the road?" Carlos was not expecting that, and he cracked up and told him to get in. Carlos had never picked up a hitchhiker before, but somehow today was different. Carlos asked the hitchhiker to put on his seat belt, and as he fastened the seat belt he said, "Hi! I'm Harry! Don't worry. I'm not a criminal. I just felt like a cold one!" Harry told Carlos a lot about himself. He was originally from New Orleans, he was in good health, and his mother lived to be 99. Harry was quite a pleasant person. He had great energy, and Carlos really enjoyed their brief time together. Harry said that he was unable to drive his vehicle at this time, and that is why he counts on the kindness of strangers. As Carlos pulled into the parking lot, he asked Harry if he was going to sit outside on the deck and watch the Phillies game, and he smiled and nodded. Carlos told him that maybe he and his wife would see Harry in the tavern sometime. Harry looked up at the sky and stared for a few seconds, smiled, and then he let out a big sigh. He said it was such a beautiful day, and he thanked Carlos for making it even better. As he was getting out of the car, he poked his head back in, and in his happy-go-lucky manner, he reminded Carlos that every act of kindness is always returned. Carlos drove away from the tavern, and he smiled thinking about Harry. He looked up at the sky. It really was a beautiful day.
[Mini Test 01 - 01번:개명사실을알리는이메일]
Dear Friends and Family, If you don't recognize the name at the end of this e-mail, don't worry. It's me, Richard Spitznogle ― now I'm Rick Sprint. That's right: Last month, I legally changed my name. As many of you know, my agent has been encouraging me to either adopt a stage name or change my name. To make things less confusing in the long run, I chose the latter. And wouldn't you know, I've already gotten two callbacks this month. I'll be sure to let you know if I end up landing a part in a movie. In the meantime, please keep those e-mails and phone calls coming. The name may be different, but it's still the same old me. Yours, Rick Sprint
[Mini Test 01 - 02번:생기를북돋우는하루의시작]
Today started out like so many other days. Lena awakened in a panic. Sweat poured from her pores and soaked her gown. It clung to her body. From a restless night of sleep, her head felt like it would explode. She stumbled across the room. The light continued to rebound from the darkness. The earth came alive. There were pretty flowers swaying in the wind. They smelled really good. Steam rose up from the pavement outside her window. Together in one place, all those sights and smells reminded her of how much she enjoyed this time of day. It made her feel happy. She watched the sun cast its brilliant rays across the landscape. Its warmth gave her a peaceful feeling. Finally, a new day stretched forth across the horizon. She thought that it would be a good day.
[Mini Test 01 - 03번:행복하게해주는일을하는것을삶의목표로삼기]
Everything you do is a part of your life. You may not have any bigger plans or purpose in life but you sure have many smaller purposes which you keep building on. If you are happy painting, just do it. You might get bored on some days and that is the time when you stop doing it. You might want to learn golf now. No one is stopping you. Life doesn't have anything destined for you. If you feel happy doing something, just go ahead with it and disassociate yourself with all miseries. These smaller things you do help you make the most of your lives. Do everything that makes you happy; just make sure it falls into the definition of morality. That is your purpose. Can you see it? Being happy is the only thing we go after in our lives. Don't let any hindrances and doubts come between you and that goal. Just pursue it.
[Mini Test 01 - 04번:조직의규율]
Discipline is an indispensable part of group activities like team sports, math class, or glee club. You certainly couldn't run an army without discipline, or a restaurant, or a cardiology department. Discipline is a wonderful thing. What it provides is an impersonal framework for coordinating the efforts of many unrelated individuals to maximize the integrity of the product─whether the product is singing on key, providing medical care, or learning algebra. The individual quirks of the participants need to be submerged and kept in line by those in administrative authority. Unfortunately, the rare individual who just won't fly right needs to be disciplined. Not every army recruit, math student, or horn player is going to make the grade. A decent-hearted band leader, math teacher, or department chairperson will do his best to respond to the problem individual with fair-mindedness, but eventually the show must go on.
[Mini Test 01 - 05번:시골지역에서권력의이동이느린이유]
The lack of anonymity and distance in the village makes it difficult for people to dissent because they can be easily identified and 'taught a lesson' by the dominant sections. Moreover, the relative power of the dominant sections is much more because they control most avenues of employment, and most resources of all kinds. So the poor have to depend on the dominant sections since there are no alternative sources of employment or support. Given the small population, it is also very difficult to gather large numbers, particularly since efforts towards this cannot be hidden from the powerful and are very quickly suppressed. So, if there is a strong power structure already in place in a village, it is very difficult to remove it. Changes in the sense of shifts in power are thus slow and late to arrive in rural areas because the social order is stronger and more resilient.
[Mini Test 01 - 06번:문제해결에도움이되는은유]
"The essence of metaphor," say Lakoff and Johnson, "is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of anther." Donald Schon calls this "seeing-as" and draws our attention to the way in which some metaphors ― generative metaphor, in his terminology―can be essential aids to innovation and problem-solving. He describes a group of product engineers puzzling over a new paintbrush with synthetic bristles. The synthetic paintbrush was not performing well─"gloppy" was one word used to describe how it delivered paint─and the engineers had tried various strategies to make the new brush's performance comparable to that of natural bristle brushes. The breakthrough came when one engineer reflected, "You know, a paintbrush is a kind of pump!" By seeing a paintbrush as a pump, the engineers moved their focus from the bristles themselves to the channels between the bristles and how the paint flowed through the channels. The paintbrush-as-pump metaphor was generative in the sense that it led to a new way of seeing the problem, and this new framing generated a new and successful solution. This is one very powerful form of human meaning-making.
[Mini Test 01 - 07번:어린시절의환경에따른스트레스대응성향]
Even if you're not a rock star and don't always live on the edge, your own fast or slow tendencies are likely etched deep into your psychology. Animal research has found that tendencies formed during childhood are most likely to surface in times of stress and uncertainty. In studies with Bonnet macaques, for example, adult monkeys respond to stress very differently depending on their childhood environment. After the monkeys were born, researchers had placed them in different environments. Some were raised in stable and predictable environments (their mothers could obtain food every day in the same place in a predictable manner). Other monkeys were placed in fluctuating environments (the researchers kept switching the locations of their food supply, so that the mothers didn't know how, where, or when they were going to find food each day). When the monkeys grew up and were exposed to stress as adults, those reared in a consistent and predictable environment coped well and explored multiple ways to deal with the situation; those reared in fluctuating and unpredictable environments panicked.
[Mini Test 01 - 08번: VR, AR, MV에대한국가별친숙도]
The table above shows the percentages of familiarity with the concepts of VR, AR, and the MV by country, in 2022. Despite the global average familiarity with VR being 80%, France had a familiarity rate with VR that was 34 percentage points lower than the global average. India had the highest familiarity with all three technologies, with VR at 89%, AR at 79%, and the MV at 80%, followed by China, which ranked second among the six countries in familiarity with all three technologies. Germany had lower levels of familiarity with all three technologies compared to the global average, and for the familiarity with the MV, the gap between the global average and Germany was more than 30 percentage points. Regarding the global average, familiarity with AR was higher than that with the MV, but in India and South Korea, familiarity with the MV exceeded that with AR. While the United States showed higher familiarity with VR compared to South Korea, South Korea had higher familiarity with both AR and the MV than the United States.
[Mini Test 01 - 09번: John Goodricke의생애]
English astronomer John Goodricke was born in the Netherlands in 1764. He was deaf and mute, probably because of a serious illness he had contracted in childhood. He nevertheless proved to be a bright student. In 1778, he entered Warrington Academy, where he excelled in mathematics, and his interest in astronomy was awakened. After leaving the academy in 1781, he started making his own astronomical observations. In November 1782, he was regularly observing the star known as Algol and soon realized that its brightness varies regularly over a period of a few days. By further observations, he confirmed these periodic variations and accurately estimated the period at a bit less than 2 days and 21 hours. Variations in brightness of Algol, Mira, and other stars had been noted by earlier astronomers, but Goodricke was the first to establish that some variables are truly periodic in nature. Goodricke reported his findings to the Royal Society of London, and the Royal Society awarded him a Copley Medal in 1783.
[Mini Test 01 - 12번:선박제작전통의다양성을설명하는요소들]
Most marine fishing requires the use of a craft on which to go to sea, together with nets, hooks and traps to catch the fish. The casual observer normally sees only the craft on the shore or at sea. Fishing craft of the small-scale fishing communities of the world are marked by a vast diversity of design. This is sometimes attributed to the 'insular' nature of many coastal communities that have given rise to culturally conditioned variations in the construction of traditional fishing craft. Cultural influences have certainly played an important role in features such as colours and the shape of the sails. But two major constraining factors also influence the technical design of fishing craft. The first is the availability of appropriate woods or other construction materials such as reeds or bamboo. The second is the set of location-specific physical oceanographic factors, including the structure, the texture, and the slope of the sea bottom and the nature of the surf and waves approaching the coast. It is these factors, rather than cultural insularity, that largely explain the diversity of craft-building traditions.
[Mini Test 01 - 13번:인간의제한적인사교성의문제점]
Humans are clearly gregarious, but they do not associate with one another in ways that embrace all the members of the species in a particular area. Smaller groups are formed which include some members and exclude others. People like to be close to those who are similar to themselves in certain respects, but they prefer to be distant from those who are different; human gregariousness is quite severely limited in its scope. In a word, humans discriminate. They prefer association with others of the same occupation, socioeconomic class or status, religion, language, nationality, race, colour, and so on. This is the source of some of the most serious problems facing human societies. Some limited associations are much more important in this respect than others. If the tool-and-die makers of a city form an exclusive recreational association it creates few, if any, social problems, but if white residents form white-only residential areas or school districts that is a different matter. Man's limited gregariousness is not, in itself, a social problem, but certain kinds of discrimination are sources of conflict and hostility that are dysfunctional for the collectivity.
[Mini Test 01 - 14번:오도하는아름다운감각]
In our unrooted and industrialized world, beauty can be a deceiver. We often isolate our senses from the consequences of our actions, creating bubbles of pleasing experience built on ugliness elsewhere that might give us pause if we could sense it directly. This is most obvious with international trade. The beautiful objects and foods in our lives sometimes come from places of exploitation. Even soundscapes can be misleading. In the outer suburbs, gentle sounds of insects and birdsong in trees soothe us. Yet this experience is possible only because of the traffic-filled highway that brings us and our goods to sonic oases, and the noise of mines and factories needed to build the extensive infrastructure networks that enable and sustain low-density suburbia. In seeking sensory calm and connection to other species, we can paradoxically increase the sum of human noise in the world. The dislocating power of fossil fuels drives much of this separation between our senses and the consequences of our actions.
[Mini Test 01 - 15번:호의를베푼사람에대한경계선설정]
When you try to initiate a conversation about boundaries with someone who has done or is doing you a favor, there's a good chance that person will try to make you feel really guilty. They might be seeing you as ungrateful, selfish, or a "user." Please remember, the way other people choose to respond to your clear, kind boundary is not your business. If you appreciate the favor, have truly repaid it in the way you both agreed to, and believe the favor grantor is dangling strings you never would have agreed to, set the boundary. In the best-case scenario, they'll understand they've overstepped and it won't continue to happen. In the likely scenario, they'll complain about it, but will reluctantly acquiesce─and you might have to actively smooth things over for a while. In the worst-case scenario, they're furious at your selfishness, sever the relationship (likely temporarily), and you will never lean on them again for a favor. (Would you really want to anyway?) Only you can decide how much to push back for the sake of your mental health and relationship.
[Mini Test 01 - 16번:상당한투자에근거하는멀티미디어제품보호의필요성]
Multimedia products, irrespective of whether they are original or not, require significant investments for their production. Sometimes the amount of money and effort put into the design, accumulation of the various elements and realisation of a multimedia product (which is not original) can be extremely substantial and can even surpass those for the creation of an original work. The possibility of copying these works in perfect quality at a fraction of the original cost and the marketing of similar or identical products clearly jeopardises the investment put into this domain and greatly discourages future projects in the area. The multimedia industry in this respect runs an important risk that is similar to the one the database industry was confronted with some years ago. Therefore, there is a need for protection even for those multimedia products that do not come under the umbrella of copyright. This need is not based on their creativity or the fact that they offer society a new expression of a concept, but rather on the substantial investment in them.
[Mini Test 01 - 17번:뉴스발행사의독자구성과선호도파악]
Although many news publishers subscribe to at least one source of online audience measurement, they also exhibit uncertainty about how best to incorporate the data into editorial decisions. This uncertainty stems from the fact that even sophisticated measures of audience behavior paint an incomplete portrait of who the audience is and what they want from news media. For example, a digital news site now can observe how its online audience interacts with its content, but remains limited when it comes to its understanding why they spent time with some stories but not others. To address this gap, news organizations sometimes complement these online metrics with more qualitative means of audience research, such as surveys and focus groups. However, these methods suffer from limitations of their own: Even if a news organization surveys a sample of its subscribers about their motivations for subscribing, they cannot know, with certainty, how representative those responses are of the rest of their audience. News publishers simply lack the time and resources to identify the exact composition and preferences of all their readers.
[Mini Test 01 - 18번:도로를줄이는것의효과]
As for the question of what happens to all the cars once a highway is replaced with a boulevard, evidence shows time and again that removing highways actually reduces the number of cars on the road. After the West Side Highway in New York was replaced, traffic in that section of Manhattan dropped from 140,000 to 95,000 vehicles per day. Many drivers switched to faster roads in New Jersey, and as New York City invested more in public transportation, some commuters switched their daily patterns to ride subways and buses. Traffic is one of the best-known examples of induced demand; the more roads, the more people will use them. If the ultimate goal is to curb driving in a city and to move people away from unsustainable transportation sources, reducing the space allotted to cars is a good way to start.
[Mini Test 01 - 19번:창의력과상상력]
Creativity does not have to be connected to imagination. While imagination is characterized by independent, outside-the-box thinking, creativity is responding to a problem with the tools and knowledge in existence. It is thinking within the box. The existing knowledge base, without using any imagination, can easily lead in the direction of modest incremental developments in existing products or services. One can easily observe this progression in the example of typewriters. In the beginning, typewriters were bulky and their keyboards were not standardized. So the next step was the standardization of the keyboard. The heavy and difficult to move typewriter gave way to the portable typewriter. But it was still a manual device. The next steps were the slow and incremental development of electric typewriters and then the development of the modern personal computer. The computer made the typewriter obsolete, as computers offered all the features that typewriters offered as well as many improvements. Thus, a radical innovation took over an incrementalized product.
[Mini Test 01 - 20번:초기인류와음악]
Regardless of when the music cells first appeared, the notion that such cells exist raises the possibility that the human brain evolved to engage in music. Modern humans (Homo sapiens) have existed for around 300,000 years. The oldest known musical instruments are flutes made from bones, discovered in southwestern Germany dating to 40,000 years ago. It has been suggested that Neanderthals may also have engaged in music, including instrumental music. Indeed, a fragment of a cave bear bone dated to 43,000 years ago was discovered in a Neanderthal cave in Slovenia with regular holes on one side of the bone. Whether this bone was indeed a flute remains the subject of substantial debate. On the one hand, data from a study of the bone suggest that the holes were generated by scavenging spotted hyenas. However, the arrangement of the holes, the lack of damage on the other side of the bone, and the finding that models of the bone when played generate a diatonic scale raise doubts that the holes were made by predators or scavengers. So we may not be the only hominids to have engaged in early forms of music.
[Mini Test 01 - 21번:자기참조적사회인지]
Self-referent social cognitions, such as optimism and pessimism, matter in coping with parental stress. Individuals who are consistently pessimistic accumulate effects of stress in a downward spiral of events, thoughts, emotions, and physiological states. They are more likely to create stressful circumstances for themselves and others, and to lose resources by causing others to respond negatively to them and by making poor decisions that expose them to more stressors. In stark contrast is the process of coping with stress among those who are largely optimistic in their outlooks. These individuals manage to conserve resources and minimize exposure to new stressors, resulting in an upward spiral of coping. For example, one study of parents of children with cancer found that mothers and fathers who did not expect a good outcome were highly distressed. In contrast, those parents who remained optimistic about possible outcomes were more protected against stress, even in often dire circumstances over which the parents had little control.
[Mini Test 01 - 22번:약용식물의가치와그것의초자연적의미]
From the earliest times, medicinal plants have been crucial in sustaining the health and the well-being of mankind. Flaxseed, for example, provided its harvesters with a nutritious food oil, fuel, a cosmetic balm for the skin, and fiber to make fabric. At the same time, it was used to treat conditions such as bronchitis, respiratory congestion, and a number of digestive problems. Given the life-enhancing benefits that this and so many other plants offered, it is hardly surprising that most cultures believed them to have magical as well as medicinal abilities. It is reasonable to assume that for tens of thousands of years herbs were probably used as much for their ritual magical powers as for their medicinal qualities. A 60,000-year-old burial site uncovered in Iraq, for instance, was found to contain eight different medicinal plants, including ephedra. The inclusion of the plants in the tomb suggests they had supernatural significance as well as medicinal value.
[Mini Test 01 - 23번:고령자의새로운기술채택]
As we age, the way in which our bodies function begins to change and the use of technology can become increasingly difficult. This means that age-related physical impairments or cognitive conditions affect how older adults use computers and mobile devices. Furthermore, socioeconomic resources can also play a role. For example, a retiree may not have the financial means to afford an internet connection. There may also be personal barriers to overcome. For instance, people get anxious when faced with technical challenges. For older people, technological change does not only mean learning something new, but also learning under more difficult cognitive conditions. This means that seniors need more time to learn and change their behaviour. In addition, there is a lack of motivation to deal with new technology, as some people may tell themselves "It is not worth it at my age." After retirement, people are no longer obliged to learn new technologies for their job; instead, they can choose to voluntarily use technology. Therefore, a technology must demonstrate a clear benefit (added value compared to traditional services, such as buying a train ticket at the counter) in order for them to adopt the new technology (e.g. to buy a train ticket via an app). [요약문] A variety of factors can cause aging adults to have difficulty in using new technology, so without a clear beneficial upside, they will not embrace it.
[Mini Test 01 - 24~25번:기후변화에대한스토리접근법의효과]
When it comes to climate change, there is a glaring disconnect between what we know is happening and what we seem able or willing to do about it. Longtime climate campaigner George Marshall explored this disparity in his excellent and aptly titled book Don't Even Think About It. He noted how the human brain is perfectly capable of simultaneously understanding and ignoring abstract threats. When consequences seem distant or gradual, the rational part of our mind simply files them away for future reference and rarely triggers the more instinctive, emotional pathways associated with quick action. (We do better responding to physical threats, such as spear thrusts and charging lions, the sorts of immediate problems that our ancestors evolved with.) Marshall's book ends with a laundry list of strategies for bridging that mental gap, many of which rely on something else the human brain is known for: storytelling. When complex ideas are attached to a narrative, they immediately become more relevant. There is a reason why Plato framed so many of his philosophical dialogues around the drama of the trial of Socrates, and why Carl Sagan chose to teach astrophysics from the glowing deck of an imaginary spaceship. Stories engage parts of the brain left untouched by facts alone, releasing chemicals that demonstrably change the way we think, feel, and remember. Learning about climate change is no different, and much of how we understand and act upon it will ultimately boil down to stories─those we tell, and, in another sense, those that it tells to us.
[Mini Test 01 - 26~28번:휴식의중요성]
When Dana Torres was training for the Olympics with her then coach Carrie Richards, she learned her lesson the hard way. She not only learned that comparing herself with other swimmers, especially much younger swimmers, gets in the way of training and swimming her best, but also that becoming unnecessarily focused on what she can't control (i.e., another swimmer's performance or training style) can drag her down. Around the time she started her journey for the Olympics, she had an active and rather charged rivalry with swimmer Jenny Thompson. They had been teammates and friends, but when Dana moved to Stanford to train with Carrie Richards and the rest of the team, hoping to make the Olympic training camp and trials, she got caught up in a competition that was incredibly stressful. She also found herself comparing her workout with what the twenty-year-olds were doing in the pool and at the gym. Looking at the young trainees she thought, "If I don't do what they're doing, how am I going to make the team? If I don't swim as long, I'll never get better results." For her, not winning was never an option. But she was confused as to what to do, how to adapt. It was Carrie who told her to back off. "You need to rest, do you understand that?" she said to Dana one day after practice. It was Friday and Dana was exhausted. She kind of nodded, hoping Carrie would just stop talking to her. "Really, you need to rest. For real. I don't want you to do one thing this weekend. Not even one." Through her glare, Dana knew Carrie was serious and meant every word. What she was saying was true. So that weekend, against every grain in her body, she rested. She resisted the urge to do a spin class, run - or swim. And by the end of the weekend, Dana actually felt better than she had in months. That Monday she swam one of the best practices of her life. Dana had learned her lesson: she needed to let her body recover when it needed to.
[Mini Test 02 - 01번: Sales Manager자리로의승진요청]
Dear Ms. Adams, I have been devotedly working at our company for the past 5 years as a sales executive. During this time, I've worked passionately and achieved impressive sales outcomes. I even received the employee of the year award in 2022. Since I completed my MBA degree in December 2021, my dedication to my work and to our company has only increased. I always try hard to come up with innovative solutions to any problem we encounter. With all my knowledge, experience, and know-how here at Mass Corporation, I kindly request you to consider promoting me to the position of Sales Manager. I completely understand the responsibilities and I know that I will excel in this role in our company. I would greatly appreciate a positive response. Regards, Ben Wilson
[Mini Test 02 - 02번:미국에서적응하고있는이민자아이]
"RAH-vee?" Mrs. Beam says as I drop my card into the basket. My heart is pounding. Have I done something wrong? Can Mrs. Beam not read what I've written on my card because of my poor handwriting? Now all my other failures come flooding back like a giant wave. My accent, my math, my English, my manners.... "It's nice to see you," says Mrs. Beam. "We missed you yesterday." "You did?" I ask. "Don't sound so surprised." She laughs. "I wanted to tell you how much I enjoyed the cookies your mother made." "Mrs. Beam," I say softly, my voice quivering a little, "my name is not RAH-vee. It's pronounced rah-VEE." She looks at me and smiles. "I'm glad you told me, rah-VEE. Was that better?" she asks. I nod my head and smile back at her. As I walk back to my seat, I feel things are finally looking up for me in America. I'm starting to believe just maybe, I can find my place in this new country.
[Mini Test 02 - 03번:젊은사람들이어울려놀수있는공공장소의필요성]
The presence of a group of young people 'hanging out' typically conjures suspicions of inappropriate and illicit behavior by adults. Public settings are often the preferred location for these informal gatherings, yet business owners, city officials, and other adults see this activity as a misuse of the space and regularly impose policy and design changes to restrict the behavior. From noise devices to removing seating, the message youth receive is one of exclusion. Instead, opportunities for young people to gather with their friends and meet new people are an important developmental need. When they cannot find a public place, or are excluded from the ones available, youth retreat to less visible areas for their socializing activities. These removed places are more likely to spur more negative behaviors because they lack informal supervision found on places like malls, cafes, and city streets. A societal understanding and acceptance of youth hanging out in public places is essential.
[Mini Test 02 - 04번:자연의소리에대한인식상실]
The extinction of sensory diversity has many causes: technologies that deliver poisons; ever-rising carbon dioxide levels; economies that force the costs of production onto other people and other species, the "externalities" of business; and ever-expanding human appetites and numbers that shoulder out other species. All these social and economic factors exist in a culture of inattention and lack of appreciation. Our ears are directed inward, to the chatter of our own species. Introductions to the sounds of the thousands of species that live in our neighborhoods have no place in most school curricula. We generally regard human language and music as outside nature, disconnected from the voices of others. When a concert starts, we close the door to the outside world. Books and software that teach us "foreign" languages include only the voices of other humans. Public monuments to sound are rare and honor a handful of canonical human composers, not the sonic history of the living Earth.
[Mini Test 02 - 05번:현실적인기대치설정의중요성]
A tough runner isn't one who is blind with ambition or confidence, but one who can accurately assess the demands and the situation. The magic is in aligning actual and expected demands. When our assessment of our capabilities is out of sync with the demands, we get the schoolchildren version of performance: starting a project with reckless confidence, only to look up and realize the work it involves. When such a mismatch exists, we're more likely to spiral toward doubts and insecurities, and to ultimately abandon our pursuit. When actual and expected demands align, we're able to pace to perfection, or outside of the athletic realm, perform up to our current capabilities. It's why experienced writers don't go into their first draft expecting perfection. They understand it's going to be messy, and often not that good. Contrary to old-school toughness wisdom, a touch of realistic doubt keeps us on track and makes it more likely that we will persist.
[Mini Test 02 - 06번:사회적곤충군집에서의작업분할]
Given the extensive behavioral repertoire of most social insect colonies, it would be easy to dismiss task partitioning as a relatively unique organizational principle limited primarily to foraging, with a few other examples found in nest building and waste management. To do this would be to dramatically underestimate the importance of task partitioning in those species that perform it. Foraging is a critical task within any social insect colony and it typically involves a relatively high proportion of workers. In the leaf-cutting ant Atta colombica, the vast majority of workers working outside the nest are either involved with foraging or with waste management, both of which involve task partitioning. Many workers inside the nest are involved with processing leaves to incorporate into the fungus gardens, which also involves task partitioning. Overall, a large proportion of the total workforce may be involved in partitioned tasks, despite these tasks being only a small subset of the total colony task repertoire.
[Mini Test 02 - 07번:상대방의관점을이해하지못하는실수]
Our personal perception of reality is distorted in many ways, so in communication between two people it is two individual realities that are distorted in different ways trying to make sense of each other. And on top of that, we tend to understand words, concepts, ideas, feelings from our own standpoint. You imagine that this person's worldview is similar to yours. He says that what his drink tastes like is a lychee milkshake. He meant that it tastes bad because he hates lychee, but you think he loves his drink because you love lychee. And this is just an example of a benign misunderstanding due to lack of perspective taking, the ability to get into somebody else's head. Indeed, our poor ability to imagine what is going on inside someone's mind, which typically stands in striking discrepancy with our confidence in our ability to do so, makes human communication a risky business.
[Mini Test 02 - 08번:비디오게임을하는8개국성인의비율]
The graph above shows the percentages of adults in eight selected countries who played video games in 2022, including how much playing was on smartphones. The U.A.E., Indonesia, China and India had a higher percentage of adult video gamers than Spain, the U.S., the U.K., and Japan. The U.A.E. had the highest percentage of adult video gamers, with about three-fourths among adults playing on their smartphones. The percentage of adults in Indonesia who played games on their smartphones was more than double that in the U.K. While the percentage of occasional gamers in China was smaller than that in India, the percentage of frequent gamers in China was the highest among all the selected countries. Among the countries, Japan had the lowest engagement rate for gaming among adults, but the percentage of smartphone gamers in Japan was higher than that in the U.K. and Spain.
[Mini Test 02 - 09번: Willebrord Snell의생애]
Willebrord Snell was born in the city of Leiden in the Netherlands. He originally attended the University of Leiden as a law student, but after presenting some lectures in mathematics at the university, he switched to his famous father's profession of mathematics. He contributed to the fields of astronomy and navigation as well as mathematics and other areas of science. In 1621, he discovered the basic law of refraction, that is, the bending of light rays that occurs when a light ray changes its speed as it travels from one medium to another of a different density. Although he only lived to be forty-six years of age, he made many contributions to science and mathematics, as well as publishing five books. He improved the work of the ancient scientist Eratosthenes by using a method of measuring the size of Earth by triangulation, which became the basis for the modern science of geodesy. He also improved Archimedes' method of estimating pi.
[Mini Test 02 - 12번:유기농식품섭취의건강상이점]
The health benefits associated with the consumption of organic food can vary. In general, your skin's condition will show improvement as your skin absorbs the higher doses of antioxidants found in organic food. Antioxidants are found in both organic and commercially produced food, but the level of antioxidants found in organic products is much higher as it has not been altered by farming chemicals. Other reported health benefits of eating more organic food include a higher level of energy, and higher alertness along with healthier looking skin, hair and nails. But the benefits don't end there. If you really think about it, you will end up saving money on cosmetics and other beauty products trying to correct problems associated with unhealthy skin, hair and nails. There are also several studies and reports mentioning that going organic, or eating more organic food in your diet can better protect you from the risk of getting breast cancer. That's another very valid reason justifying starting a diet of organic food.
[Mini Test 02 - 13번:로마제국말기의그리스어학습]
One factor that contributed to the decline in scientific endeavor during the last days of the Roman Empire was the diminishing knowledge of the Greek language. The motivation to learn a second language decreases as a function of economic dominance. In particular, members of non-dominant groups are eager to learn a language in addition to their mother tongue, in order to improve their life circumstances and (in the case of scientists) to enlarge their audience. As a consequence, the 'universal language' of science has always closely followed the shifts in economic dominance. Because the Romans dominated the other nations, it became increasingly unnecessary to study languages other than Latin, whereas more and more individuals became inclined to learn Latin as a second language, rather than Greek. As a result, a language barrier emerged between the Romans and Greek science. This was partly alleviated by an increased availability of Latin translations, but translations did not conserve the full richness of the Greek legacy. Only the works that were thought to be of interest to the Romans made it into Latin and were preserved.
[Mini Test 02 - 14번:시간에대한우리의관념]
It is hardly surprising that we struggle with the notion of how long we will be here. At first, life seems quite endless. At seven, it feels like an eternity till Christmas. At eleven, it is almost impossible to imagine what it might be like to be twenty-two. At twenty-two, thirty feels absurdly remote. Time does us a disservice in seeming so long, and yet turning out to be so resolutely short. Typically, people only become gripped by the idea of mortality at a few select points in their lives. Turning forty or fifty can bring a sudden reversal of perspective. We panic or become morose. We buy a new car or take up a musical instrument. However, what this really indicates is a dramatic failure of anticipation. The extraordinary aspect is not that we're dying, but that the reality of the nature of existence did not get fixed firmly enough in our brains at an earlier, more appropriate, moment. A mid-life crisis is not a legitimate awakening; it's a sign of being shamefully ill-prepared.
[Mini Test 02 - 15번:효과적인정보제공]
The never-ending flood of facts and data in our contemporary world has caused a paradigm shift in how we relate to information. Whereas at one time information was community-based, slow to retrieve, and often the domain of experts, information is now global, instantaneous, and often in the public domain. We now want information and content in our own hands and on our own terms. We maintain an underlying belief that it is our fundamental right to have access to well-structured and organized information. As a result, information design is exploding as organizations and individuals scramble to manage an overwhelming quantity of content. Understanding the most effective ways to inform is now a principal concern. According to professor of information design Dino Karabeg, "Informing can make the difference between the technologically advanced culture which wanders aimlessly and often destructively, and a culture with vision and direction."
[Mini Test 02 - 16번:상호의존적관계의특성]
Co-dependency in adults exists when two psychologically dependent people form a relationship with each other for the unconscious purpose of completing their early bonding processes. Their co-dependent relationship appears to be made up of two half-persons attempting to create one whole person. Because both partners lacked secure bonding in early childhood, neither is free to feel or act independently of the other, so they stick together like glue. The focus is always on the other person, not on oneself. Each hopes the other person will provide what he or she never got in early childhood: intimacy and secure bonding. Their relationship cannot grow, because this goal is never conscious or spoken. As a result, each looks to the other to make the necessary growth happen. When it doesn't, the partners try to control each other and expect the other person to always behave in certain ways to bring them closer together. Because each one is focused on the other person, both are able to avoid looking at themselves and focusing on their self-development. In co-dependent relationships, the focus is always outward, not inward.
[Mini Test 02 - 17번:인간중심주의에대한타격]
Despite his tarnished reputation among neuroscientists, Sigmund Freud was right about many things. Looking back through the history of science, he identified three 'strikes' against the perceived self-importance of the human species, each marking a major scientific advance that was strongly resisted at the time. The first was by Copernicus, who showed with his heliocentric theory that the Earth rotates around the sun, and not the other way around. With this dawned the realisation that we are not at the centre of the universe; we are just a speck somewhere out there in the vastness, a pale blue dot suspended in the abyss. Next came Darwin, who revealed that we share common ancestry with all other living things, a realisation that is - astonishingly - still resisted in some parts of the world even today. Immodestly, Freud's third strike against human exceptionalism was his own theory of the unconscious mind, which challenged the idea that our mental lives are under our conscious, rational control. While he may have been off target in the details, Freud was absolutely right to point out that a naturalistic explanation of mind and consciousness would be a further, and perhaps final, dethronement of humankind.
[Mini Test 02 - 18번:인간의지식이확장되는방식]
The sense of familiarity experienced at the sparking of a memory provides a connection between a present experience and those believed to have been previously undergone, but this by itself can provide only the most basic sort of knowledge, a kind likely shared with a wide range of animal life. Human knowledge amounts to more than an individual or even a shared past: we seek out new environments and dimensions for our understanding and try to bring the foreign and alien within our purview. One of the most basic ways in which the feeling of familiarity experienced in memory is extended over new frontiers is through the use of metaphor. Metaphors pick up on similarities and create connections by comparing lesser known phenomena with already established experiences. They play a substantial role in the narrative character of knowledge by generating imaginative associations that bring the unknown within the sphere of existing understanding.
[Mini Test 02 - 19번:한계가치]
There is an important difference between the marginal and the total value associated with market prices or the willingness of consumers to pay in markets. Economists regard the prices that people are willing to pay as indicators of the marginal value ― the value they place on the last unit purchased. Consider what a homeowner would be willing to pay for residential water in a given month. He might be willing to pay a huge sum for the privilege of consuming the first ten cubic feet, because doing without them would deprive him of even the most fundamental (and valuable) uses of water for that month: drinking water, the occasional shower, etc. The next ten cubic feet would probably not be worth quite as much. They would allow him additional opportunities to fill a glass from the faucet, and an extra shower or two, but these would not be as critical to him (or to the people with whom he associates!) as the first ten cubic feet. Thus the marginal value of water ― the amount one is willing to pay for each successive increment ― falls steadily.
[Mini Test 02 - 20번:자기향상에서인간지능과기계지능의구별]
Self-improvement is a point of differentiation between human and machine intelligence. Humans have strived for it over millennia. We respect our scholars, teachers, and guides because they help us learn and improve ourselves in many ways, including in our ability to exercise our mental faculty. This improvement, an increase in our mental ability, is a slow process for us─and also an indirect one. We learn through action, through the direct perception or input of knowledge. We cannot simply "copy" someone else's intelligence to add it to our own. In fact, we have sayings such as "some things can only be learned through experience." Machine intelligence is not restricted to this form of self-improvement. In fact, machine intelligence can create a million copies of itself, manipulate each such representation, test outcomes, and then discard inferior changes. This is direct and immediate manipulation of intelligence with no cost or consequence to the progenitor. As long as humans are limited solely to our biological intelligence, self-improvement with this level of rapidity or directness will always be impossible.
[Mini Test 02 - 21번:관용의의미변질]
Anyone reading policy documents, mission statements, school textbooks and speeches made by politicians and policymakers is likely to be struck by the frequency with which the term 'tolerance' is celebrated. It is difficult to encounter any significant acclaim for intolerance. However, on closer inspection it becomes evident that the meaning of this term has radically altered, mutating into a superficial signifier of acceptance and affirmation. In official documents and school texts, tolerance is used as a desirable character trait rather than as a way of managing conflicting beliefs and behaviour. So one can be tolerant without any reference to a set of beliefs or opinions. Moreover, the idea that tolerance means not interfering with, or attempting to suppress, beliefs that contradict one's own sentiments has given way to the idea that tolerance involves not judging other people and their views. Instead of serving as a way of responding to differences of views, tolerance has become a way of not taking them seriously.
[Mini Test 02 - 22번:생물학적욕구의보류]
We have hidden goals─goals we are not attending to consciously─that move us to do things and cause all sorts of feelings. Strong biological needs function as hidden goals. An astronaut who chooses to spend a year in space without any human contact may experience great sadness due to hidden goals of affiliation that she has consciously decided to put on hold. This example lets us see that a single goal can be present to our conscious minds at one time but hidden from us at another. The astronaut may have been very much aware of the goal of forming close relationships with other people while she was dating in college. But when she decides to concentrate on space exploration for a while, she turns her focus away from relationships, not seeing it as an important goal at the moment. And yet the goal of relationships may still be there, hidden but powerful enough to cause an emotional reaction to isolation. We could think of conscious attention as a flashlight with limited reach: it illuminates some of our goals and brings them to conscious awareness, but many of them remain in the dark until we change our focus.
[Mini Test 02 - 23번:말하는목소리와노래하는목소리의관계]
Although the singing voice might be thought of as an extension to or development of the speaking voice, the experience of actors and singers suggests that the two modes of vocal delivery remain independent. Many classical singers refrain from talking for long periods before a difficult performance, because they are sensitive to the adverse effects of speaking. The ubiquitous tool of our time, the telephone, has long been known as the creator of many vocal problems because we do not speak on the phone as we would face to face. Apparently, we overcompensate for the lack of visual communication by exaggerating certain speech habits. This seems to be in line with the ideas of Lucie Manen when she lamented the lack of facial and emotional gestures when singers perform in front of a microphone without a visible audience. Singing has an effect on the speaking voice, and vice versa; most people who talk immediately after singing will discover that their speaking voice will have raised itself a few pitches above the norm. Singers who train insufficiently in speaking may suffer from similar laryngeal problems to actors unaccustomed to singing. [요약문] The singing voice and the speaking voice, which have distinct modes of vocal delivery, mutually influence each other, with the absence of visual cues leading to exaggerated speech habits and potential vocal problems.
[Mini Test 02 - 24~25번:상황에따라변화해온감정(체계)]
Like many other animals, we benefit from a rapid, automatic response system which keeps us out of trouble. Imagine walking in a forest when a wolf leaps out. Information about the situation is promptly forwarded to certain parts of the brain, which swiftly screen it, initiate a response, and you leap back. Whatever you were thinking before is suppressed and you give your full attention to the perceived threat. At the same time, substances are released in your body which, amongst other things, make your heart beat faster in readiness for further action. In these circumstances, you would probably call the sensation fear. Others might be alerted to the danger by your posture, involuntary cry and facial expression. This emotional system probably evolved because of its survival value. But, in humans, the information is also sent to other parts of the brain, where it is reflected upon at a more leisurely pace. If you deduce that you are safe because the wolf's path is blocked, the emotional system is informed, and you relax a little and experience a spreading feeling of relief. Some people have argued that some of the other emotions which support our welfare may have evolved similarly. For instance, our ancestors also had a vested interest in supportive, personal relationships because the welfare of hunter-gatherers depended on them. Threats to these relationships may have produced feelings of anxiety, embarrassment, shame or guilt. On the other hand, support for them may have led to feelings of thankfulness.
[Mini Test 02 - 26~28번:신념과실제의변화]
Steve was giving a motivational seminar to a utility company, and during one of the breaks, a man who looked to be in his sixties came up to him. "I'm Jake. My problem," he said, "is that I never seem to finish anything. I'm always starting things─this project and that, but I never finish. I'm always off on to something else before anything is completed." He then asked whether Steve could give him some affirmations or positive statements that might alter his belief system. Steve felt Jake correctly saw the problem as being one of belief. He thought that because Jake did not believe he was a good finisher, he did not finish anything; so he wanted a magical word or phrase to repeat to himself that would brainwash him into being different. "Do you think affirmations are what you need?" Steve asked Jake. "If you had to learn how to use a computer, could you do it by sitting on your bed and repeating the affirmation, 'I know how to use a computer. I am great at using computers. I am a wizard on a computer'?" Jake admitted that affirmations would probably have no effect on his ability to use a computer. "The best way to change your belief system is to change the truth about you," Steve said. "We believe the truth faster than we believe false affirmations. To believe that you are a good finisher, you must begin by building a track record of finished tasks." Jake followed Steve's suggestions with great enthusiasm. He bought a notebook and at the top of the first page he wrote, "Things I've Finished." Each day, he made a point of setting small goals and finishing them. Whereas in the past he would be sweeping his front walk and leave it unfinished when the phone rang, now he'd let the phone ring so he could finish the job and record it in his notebook. The more things he wrote down, the more confident he became that he was truly becoming a finisher. And he had a notebook to prove it.
[Mini Test 03 - 01번:도서관저녁시간운영중단]
Dear Mr. Andersen, For many residents in the town of Wolfville, strolling downtown to the library in the evening and enjoying some time in the cool, quiet reading room has been a treat many of us enjoy. However, I recently learned that the library board has decided to eliminate the evening hours this summer, which is quite disappointing. Everyone understands the difficult economy, but I have to believe there were alternatives to eliminating this much-appreciated pleasure; in my experience there were nights when every seat was taken. I ask the board to reconsider their decision and find a better solution that accommodates the needs of the community. I think closing the library early on Saturday or even closing it completely on a weekday would be a possible solution. I look forward to hearing from you soon. Sincerely, Randolph Pennington
[Mini Test 03 - 02번:눈덮인세상이보여준환희]
I was in the middle of a particularly cheerless February, and even though I had gone through this feeling many times before and knew it would eventually pass, I had gotten to the point where I was beginning to believe it would never get better. I can remember thinking as I went to sleep that night that this time I would be stuck forever in winter. When I woke up there was an unsettling silence all over the house. I walked over to the front door and opened it. Outside, the world had remade itself into the most sparkling, beautiful, and inviting place imaginable. A late-night snowstorm had covered everything with white. The sun was up and shining brightly; everywhere I looked the snow was dancing with light. Suddenly all the dark clouds in my mind were gone and I started laughing in delight. Winter, the monster eating my soul, had pulled a fast one and slipped in a day of incredible purity and beauty just to remind me of the possibilities in life.
[Mini Test 03 - 03번:유전자분야에관한의사의소양]
Physicians work hard to serve the best interests of their patients. "Do no harm" is the code they live by. Presently there is a strong feeling among many physicians that genetic and genomic information is harmful and thus should not be used in managing the health of healthy people. Moreover, most physicians are not trained to understand this information. Ironically, many of them are very comfortable discussing family history with their patients but are uncomfortable talking about genomics. The technologies, applications, and value of genetics and genome sequencing must be part of medical school education and continuing medical education, given how rapidly the field is changing. Most importantly, patients are truly eager for this information. Various genetic information companies have well over 900,000 people who already have contributed samples. Many of these people approach their physicians asking for help in interpreting the meaning of their results. It is essential that doctors be familiar with this subject area.
[Mini Test 03 - 04번:재매개와스토리텔링]
For well over 100 years, audiences have looked into rectangular screens, ignoring everything peripheral to the edges of the frame. But in recent times, the edges of the screen have been removed. Narratives now have the potential to play out anywhere we can crane our necks to glance or stare. Like in life, any place we can walk to or journey toward becomes the screen for a story. This breakthrough in storytelling is changing the way audiences engage with the moving image as well as the ways we create content─and this is only just the beginning. Virtual Reality (VR) is one of the latest developments in the remediation process that has come to define digital media. According to theorists Bolter and Grusin, this process of remediation has become integral to the ongoing progress of media, which is now constantly commenting on, reproducing, and eventually replacing itself.
[Mini Test 03 - 05번:감각을통한경험]
If someone flashes a camera bulb in your face, others might see you blink, wince and throw your arms up reflexively in response, but they will not, and cannot, see the after-image that occupies your visual field for a few moments. If you form a mental image of the Eiffel Tower, or think of the way your favorite song goes, others will be totally unable to see that image or hear that song, however vivid the images are and however close they get their eyes and ears to your skull. Performing brain surgery on you won't give them access either─it's not as if they'll see a little picture of the Eiffel Tower inscribed in your grey matter or hear music coming from your hypothalamus. Nor can others directly experience what you experience as you eat a cheeseburger. Your sensations of the taste, texture, smell and look of the thing are available only to you; they can have similar experiences, should they eat their own burgers, but their experiences would then be theirs, not yours.
[Mini Test 03 - 06번:미국노인이겪는여러문제]
Ten percent of the total number of people in the American population living below the poverty line are over the age of 65, with many living on an average social security pension of $12,500 a year with no other source of income. Forty-two percent of all Americans 65 and older suffer from disabilities that affect their daily functioning. As the number of older Americans grows, so does the recognition that many older Americans have serious social, emotional, health and financial problems that make aging a joyless and sometimes anxious and depressing experience. Many older adults with social and emotional problems have conditions that go undiagnosed and untreated because underlying symptoms of anxiety and depression are thought to be physical in nature, and health and mental health professionals frequently believe that older adults are neither motivated for therapy nor find it an appropriate treatment. This often leaves many older adults trying to cope with serious emotional problems without adequate help.
[Mini Test 03 - 07번:진로평가의이점]
In my experience, assessments provide information that is confirmatory─that is, they confirm patterns of which you are already aware. In my own life, these assessments have reinforced the career path I have chosen and have helped give me confidence in my next step. For example, career assessments usually paint a similar picture of me; they illustrate that I am a strong fit for fields like consulting, psychology, and business, where I can problem-solve one-on-one with people and teams. Similarly, personality-focused assessments tell me that I prefer people to things, and rely on feelings and intuition more often than data and facts. Why do such results matter? Quite simply, when you find a career that leverages your dominant personality traits, preferences, and career interests, work is not a chore or bother, rather it feels natural and effortless. Assessments also give you a confidence boost by reinforcing what you may have long suspected, but for which you did not necessarily have outside validation.
[Mini Test 03 - 08번:자율주행차의안전성에관한의견]
The above graph shows the percentages from 2017 to 2020 of consumers in four different countries who thought self-driving vehicles would not be safe. In 2017, the percentage of consumers who thought self-driving vehicles would not be safe was highest in South Korea at 81%, followed by the U.S. at 74% and Germany at 72%. Concern for the safety of self-driving vehicles was highest in 2017 for each of the four countries, and it showed a steady decrease in all of them from 2018 to 2020. In 2020, among the four countries India had the highest percentage of consumers who did not consider self-driving vehicles to be safe at 58%. In Germany, the percentage of consumers who thought self-driving vehicles would not be safe was the same in 2018 and 2020. The difference between the percentage points of consumers who thought self-driving vehicles would not be safe in 2017 and in 2020 was the smallest in India.
[Mini Test 03 - 09번:최초의아시아계할리우드배우Anna May Wong]
Anna May Wong is still considered Hollywood's first-ever Asian American movie star. She was born on January 3, 1905 in Los Angeles. Her parents owned a laundromat near the city's Chinatown neighborhood, and while she and her seven brothers and sisters frequently helped out at the family business, from a young age she dreamed of starring in the movies she saw filmed all over town. After dropping out of high school for her career, the star earned her first leading role in the silent film The Toll of the Sea. As they say in the business, it was her big break. Though the actress did get to live out her dream of being a movie star, it was still America in the early 20th century. Roles were few and far between for Asian actresses and those that did exist were steeped in racial stereotypes. With all this Wong grew frustrated with the U.S. and moved to Berlin in 1928. It was in Europe that she found global success in movies filmed in France, Germany, and England, according to Time. A year before her death, she was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
[Mini Test 03 - 12번:소모임의문화적특성]
While all sites of interaction inform us of the structure of social life, we find this most clearly when individuals have a commitment to a civil consciousness. Tiny publics, grounded in interaction, combine group culture with attention to civic engagement. A tiny public is a group with a recognizable interaction order and a local culture that hopes to shape society. In other words tiny publics, such as Chicago Seniors Together, have both an internal order and a communal face that is outward-looking: they are Janus-faced and must negotiate the dilemmas of appealing to multiple audiences. These communities may have small memberships, but they address a broader politics, and in their sociality they develop a collaborative commitment. One challenge faced by societies composed of tiny publics is that the desire for smooth interaction may make them conflict-averse, avoiding controversies that might productively be addressed, or may lead them to simply bow to the demands of the most powerful. As a result, tiny publics that hope to be adversarial are vital in bettering society precisely because of their challenge.
[Mini Test 03 - 13번:디지털기술의발전과개인의책임]
The utopia of digital humanism demands a consistent departure from the paradigm of the machine. Neither nature as a whole nor humans should be conceived of as machines. The world is not a clock, and humans are not automata. Machines can expand, even strengthen, the scope of human agency and creative power. They can be used for the good and to the detriment of the development of humanity, but they cannot replace the human responsibility of individual agents and the cultural and social responsibility of human societies. Paradoxically, the responsibility of individuals and groups is broadened by machine technology and digital technologies. The expanded possibilities of interaction enabled through digital technologies and the development of communicative and interactive networks rather present new challenges for the ethos of responsibility, which the rational human being cannot avoid by entrusting responsibility to autonomous systems, whether they are robots or self-learning software systems.
[Mini Test 03 - 14번:환경문제에서과학의권위]
Science often even determines what becomes an environmental issue in the first place. Several of the most serious environmental problems, such as the transport of toxic pollutants over long distances, depletion of the ozone layer, and climate change, were only recognized as problems once scientists had described them. Indeed, the view that an issue only exists once science has described it is common in environmental politics. For instance, I am writing this on a hot September day, the air tinted an unhealthy orange. The Ontario provincial government has just announced it will upgrade its air quality monitoring network. It already measures ground-level ozone, which, as a product of hot days and chemical reactions in the atmosphere, is usually a problem only in summer. Soon the network will also measure fine particulates, which may be present throughout the year. As a result, the television reporter explained, poor air quality days may now occur at any time of the year. In effect, "poor air quality" has become a state that only exists once it can be measured scientifically. Such is the authority of science in environmental affairs.
[Mini Test 03 - 15번:자녀의능력에대한너무이른기대]
The temptation and desire of some parents to take advantage of and overstimulate unusual abilities of their children cause some children to be rushed through infancy too rapidly. This is apparent in the pride of the father and mother who tell of a child who never used "baby talk" but pronounced words with clarity from an early period, or who boast of a child who was trained to bladder control before the first few months were over. These are samples of achievements of questionable value, as they are not natural for the level of development at which the child was. Too frequently such a child will begin to talk "baby talk" or develop enuresis when he is four or five years old, much to the discouragement of the parents who had come to regard their child as "grown up." An unhappy, neurotic girl of fourteen formulated her major complaint as being that she was "born too soon," and it was true that she never had had the chance to be an infant, which fact, in turn, distorted the satisfactions of being a child.
[Mini Test 03 - 16번:독서를통한글쓰기향상법]
You can learn a lot by paying deliberate attention to your reactions as you read. If you find a paper particularly easy or pleasurable to read, what made it so? What wording, structure, or graphics did you think were effective? If you found a paper hard, what elements made you struggle? Can you imagine a change that would have made the writing clearer? Steven Pinker offers some concrete examples of this way of reading. Make notes about examples of effective or ineffective writing and save them in a folder for later reference. When you write, imitate what you liked and avoid re-creating what you didn't. Actually, doing this deliberately is just an extension of what you've been doing subconsciously ever since you learned to read. Just as children develop an ear for spoken language by listening to their families, friends, and neighbors─and therefore speak with a vocabulary and accent that can pinpoint their origins decades later─so you develop an ear for written language by reading. Things you've liked as a reader will naturally crop up in your writing, but you can greatly accelerate the process with some conscious attention to the matter.
[Mini Test 03 - 17번: 18세기말이후평등의진전]
At least since the end of the eighteenth century, there has been a historical movement toward equality. The world of the early 2020s, no matter how unjust it may seem, is more egalitarian than that of 1950 or that of 1900, which were themselves in many respects more egalitarian than those of 1850 or 1780. The precise developments vary depending on the period, and on whether we are studying inequalities between social classes defined by legal status, ownership of the means of production, income, education, national or ethno-racial origin. But over the long term, no matter which criterion we employ, we arrive at the same conclusion. Between 1780 and 2020, we see developments tending toward greater equality of status, property, income, genders, and races within most regions and societies on the planet, and to a certain extent when we compare these societies on the global scale. If we adopt a global, multidimensional perspective on inequalities, we can see that, in several respects, this advance toward equality has also continued during the period from 1980 to 2020, which is more complex and mixed than is often thought.
[Mini Test 03 - 18번:토양탄소격리의긍정적효과]
In the context of global climate change, understanding the carbon sequestration potential of soils has assumed renewed importance. Soil carbon sequestration refers to the process of transfer of CO2 from the atmosphere into the soil through various sources, such as plant residues, organic solids and so on. The soil carbon sequestration significantly helps counterbalance emissions from fossil fuel combustion and other carbon-emitting activities while enhancing soil quality and long-term crop productivity. While in the atmosphere, the enhanced levels of carbon are highly undesirable due to its contribution to global warming and greenhouse effect, in soil systems higher amounts of carbon are very much desirable. This is because in soils, higher amounts of organic carbon contribute significantly to soil health in terms of its influence on soil structure, biological composition and microbial activity.
[Mini Test 03 - 19번:소리세기전쟁]
We create sonic space every time we press "play" on our smartphones and CD players at home. Because we have an abundant choice of music, albums and tracks are set into competition with one another for our attention. The loudest ones usually win, even if we think we have no preference for loudness. Our brains consistently judge louder music as "better." Moreover, our brains also prefer music that has had its quiet passages amplified. This psychological quirk sparked the "loudness wars," starting with CDs in the 1990s and continuing to the present day. Producers increase the amplitude of every part of the music, turning the variable loudness of a piece of music into what they call a brick wall, a final product in which every part of the track is boosted to the highest level possible. The resulting sound file on a computer screen shows a tall and unvarying wall of intensity instead of the ups and downs of the volume of most live music. The overall impression is of louder, more present music.
[Mini Test 03 - 20번:업무자동화]
Work automation only rarely involves substituting a robot, chatbot, or AI for the human worker in a particular job. Rather, most work automation effects will reinvent the work. This will require that humans and automation work together, as some of the tasks formerly done by the human worker are now done by automation but many of the formerly human tasks will still be done by the human worker. For example, the traditional job of infrastructure inspector/repairperson for things like power lines or pipelines combines in a single job tasks such as physically inspecting, recording data, diagnosing potential faults, and repairing the faults. Increasingly, the new infrastructure work combines humans with automated drones or sensors that take on the tasks of physical inspection and recording data. The human workers are left to focus on diagnosis and creative repair solutions, with the repairs carried out by remotely guided automated machines.
[Mini Test 03 - 21번:정보의홍수와인공지능]
Knowledge is at the root of technology, information is at the root of knowledge, and today's technology makes information vastly more accessible than it has ever been. Shouldn't this help us solve our problems? The explosion of AI feeds the tsunami, turning every image, every text, and every sound into yet more information, flooding our limited human brains. We can't absorb the flood without curation, and curation of information is increasingly being done by Als. Every subset of the truth is only a partial truth, and curated information includes, necessarily, a subset. Since our brains can only absorb a tiny subset of the flood, everything we take in is at best a partial truth. The Als, in contrast, seem to have little difficulty with the flood. To them, it is the food that strengthens, perhaps leading to that feared uncontrollable scenario where superintelligence sidelines humans into irrelevance.
[Mini Test 03 - 22번:컴퓨터게임애니메이션속물리학법칙의자유로움]
When objects move in a CG animation, their motion must appear to be consistent with the envisioned world's laws of physics. Because the objects have no real mass or dimensions, their physics too must be simulated by an algorithm. Otherwise, the player of Half-Life: Alyx could accidentally run through a wall and emerge on the other side. The effects of collisions as well as the effects of acceleration and gravity must be simulated─that is, if the animators want the scene to look and act like our world. But the physics of computer games do not have to be the same as those of the physical universe. Gravity could have any value the animators want, or it could be absent. A ball could gain velocity when it ricochets off a wall, rather than slowing down. Each effect will have its own visual meaning, creating a sense of realism or surrealism.
[Mini Test 03 - 23번:단독상태가의견중요도인식에미치는영향]
The perceptual salience of a characteristic is partly due to the situation in which it is encountered. Shelley Taylor and her colleagues have found that solo status, such as being the only woman on a committee or the only Asian student in a class, commands others' attention. In one study, participants watched a group of six students discuss a topic; the groups consisted of each possible distribution of men and women (e.g., six men, no women; five men, one woman, etc.). Participants then evaluated the contributions of a given group member. The results showed that the significance attributed to a group member's comments was inversely proportional to the size of their minority group. In other words, as people become more noticeable in a group, acquiring more solo status, their actions stand out and acquire greater importance in perceivers' eyes. This occurs even when the quantity of the member's contribution to the group remains the same across the various group types. [요약문] According to one study, having solo status in a group increases the perceived significance of one's comments in a discussion, even when the amount of one's contribution to the group does not differ across group types.
[Mini Test 03 - 24~25번:개인용로봇에대한환상]
Is the making of illusions, which is arguably what the developers of personal robots do, necessarily bad? For example, if an illusion is created in which the robot is a living being or friend, is this bad? Surely we do not have a problem with illusions when we go to the theater or a magic show. We are happy to be "deceived" during the show. Before and afterward, however─and perhaps during―we at the same time know that what is seen is not real. There is a so-called suspension of disbelief: people temporarily accept a show or story as reality in order to be entertained. Applied to personal robots, this would mean that people temporarily suspend disbelief during the interaction with the robot in order for the robot to do its "magic." Ethically speaking, then, one could demand from designers and those who offer the robot to users that users be made aware that the robot is creating illusions, that what goes on in the human-robot interaction is "as if' and make-believe. This is a challenge for designers and developers, but also for parents, care workers, and others who offer the robot to those they are supposed to take care of; it requires a kind of honesty about what the robot really is and can provide. This would go against much of the current advertising for personal robots, which are often sold as your "friend," supplying "companionship" and enabling "conversations," and so forth.
[Mini Test 03 - 26~28번:비행기안에서게임을하는소년과변호사]
Once a small boy and a lawyer were seated next to each other on a flight from Los Angeles to New York. As soon as the flight took off, the lawyer turned around and asked the little boy if he would like to play a game that is fun and interesting. The boy refused since he wanted to sleep for a few hours. The lawyer insisted that the little boy must indeed play the game and explained the rules. "It is really lots of fun. I will ask you a question. If you cannot answer, then you will give me $5 and vice versa," he said. The little boy tried to ignore the lawyer and pretended to turn the other way and sleep. After a while when he turned around, he saw the lawyer peering at him. "This time we will play it differently. If you don't answer, you pay $5. If I don't answer, I will pay you $100," the lawyer said. The boy knew that unless he played a round, the lawyer was not going to let him off. So he agreed to the lawyer's terms. "What is the distance between the sun and the earth?" This was the lawyer's first question. The boy shook his head, took a five-dollar bill from his pocket, and gave it to the lawyer. It was now the boy's tum to ask a question. "What goes up a hill on two hands and walks down on three?" he asked. The lawyer was perplexed by the question, for he did not know the answer. He immediately opened his laptop and searched the web for answers. He emailed his friends and colleagues in desperation to find the answer, but to no avail. No one could give an answer. Frustrated, the lawyer gave the boy a one-hundred-dollar bill. "Thank you!" said the boy in a relieved tone and settled down to sleep. The lawyer was annoyed that the boy had not given him the answer. So he shook him and asked, "What is the correct answer?" The boy smiled, took out a five, and handed it over to the lawyer, saying, "Who knows?!"
I'm Charlie Reeves, manager of Toon Skills Company. If you're interested in new webtoon-making skills and techniques, this post is for you. This year, we've launched special online courses, which contain a variety of contents about webtoon production. Each course consists of ten units that help improve your drawing and story-telling skills. Moreover, these courses are designed to suit any level, from beginner to advanced. It costs $45 for one course, and you can watch your course as many times as you want for six months. Our courses with talented and experienced instructors will open up a new world of creativity for you. It's time to start creating your webtoon world at https://webtoonskills.com.
[1강- 01번:별장 사용 불가 통보]
Dear Dave and Gretchen, We hope all is well with you and your family. At last, spring is in the air, and that means summer can't be far behind. For the past several years we have taken much pleasure in sharing our cottage on Mirror Pond with you and some of our other close friends. This year, though, I'm afraid we must do things a bit differently. The expense of maintaining the house has gone up quite a bit, and for at least the coming summer we have decided to put the cottage on the market as a rental property. We already have several leads from people who are considering taking the cottage for most or all of the summer. We hope you understand. And if we end up with some unbooked time in the fall, we'll let you know. Sincerely, Sandy Webb
[1강- 02번:체스 동아리 물품 마련을 위한 기부 부탁]
Dear Mr. Butler, I am James Franklin, principal of Grandview High School. Each year we provide engaging events to bring our school's community together. This year, we are trying to have a chess tournament. We think that it will create a healthy competitive atmosphere and help students make new friends. And some of the students in our school chess club are showing very promising results and are aiming to participate in the City Chess Tournament. They are practicing hard for the tournament. However, due to our school's budgetary constraints, we had to cut back on school supplies. To offer our students the best education possible, we need the supplies to keep our chess club running. We would like to ask that you help us continue the chess club by donating money. If you contribute to our school, you'll be a hero to the students who are pursuing their dream of becoming chess players. Sincerely, James Franklin
[1강- 03번:교체 상품 배송 요청]
To Whom It May Concern I am writing to you about an issue with my recent mobile phone order. I ordered a silver model, but I was sent a black one. However, I decided to use it anyway. Nevertheless, I could not save numbers in it, and the battery would not even last a day on a full charge. When I contacted customer service, the representative asked me to return the phone and promised to send a replacement. That was two weeks ago, and I still have not received the new phone. I would highly appreciate it if you could send me the replacement phone ― in silver and with a healthy battery ― as soon as possible. I look forward to your prompt action on my request. Thanks, John Smith
[1강- 04번:복사기 유지 관리 서비스 광고]
Dear Mr. Scott, If you ask your administrative employees, they will probably agree that copier maintenance is critical to a successful office. Our research shows that the typical business will use copy equipment about six months before repairing or replacing it. Historically, when you have needed service, the only option has been to call a repairperson at a very high cost. Fortunately, there is now a service that can extend the life of your copier and save your company thousands of dollars during the next year. Lake Paperworx specializes in copier maintenance, successfully serving business and legal firms throughout the United States. We can significantly reduce your maintenance costs and your downtime. The enclosed brochure outlines our services. If you are interested in using our services, please call me directly at 920-4848-1212. Sincerely, James Palmer Lake Paperworx Business Manager
[2강- Gateway:출근 첫날 버스 기다리기]
David was starting a new job in Vancouver, and he was waiting for his bus. He kept looking back and forth between his watch and the direction the bus would come from. He thought, "My bus isn't here yet. I can't be late on my first day." David couldn't feel at ease. When he looked up again, he saw a different bus coming that was going right to his work. The bus stopped in front of him and opened its door. He got on the bus thinking, "Phew! Luckily, this bus came just in time so I won't be late." He leaned back on an unoccupied seat in the bus and took a deep breath, finally able to relax.
[2강- 01번:원하는 옷감의 구매 실패]
Olivia pulled a piece of bright yellow silk from the display. In her free hand she held a sample of beaded lace and tried to imagine the sound it would make whispering around her ankles as she danced. Now that the war was over, there would be a lot of dancing. Anticipation bubbled in her chest. She'd meet a real gentleman this season, and who knew? Maybe she would get married. "May I help you?" A shopkeeper stood beside her. "I would like five yards of this silk and a roll of this lace," Olivia said. "I'm very sorry, miss. They are already reserved." What a letdown! No other fabric would make her as beautiful as the yellow silk, and no other pearls would make such a charming whisper. With a sigh, she returned the items to the display.
[2강- 02번: Garcia씨의 트럼펫 연주]
Mr. Garcia walked to his closet and pulled a trumpet out of its case. He blew into it, you know, like he was clearing it all out. He ran his fingers along the valves and played a scale. And then he said, "Okay, Zach, ready?" And then he started playing. I mean the guy could play. He played this really soft and beautiful song. I never knew a trumpet could whisper. I kept looking at his fingers. I wanted him to keep playing forever. It was better than any of the poems he'd read to us in class. It was like the whole loud world had gone really, really quiet and there was nothing but this one song, this one sweet and gentle and brilliant song that was as soft as a breeze blowing through the leaves of a tree. The world just disappeared. I wanted to live in that stillness forever. I wanted to clap. And then, I just didn't know what to do or what to say.
[2강- 03번:처벌받을 위기에서 벗어남]
A very large warrior approached and stood in front of Benny. The warrior took him by the arm, and Benny was convinced that he was going to be punished. He shivered with fear while being dragged. The warrior brought Benny to an open area of the village. There sat an old man. He seemed to be incredibly respected by all of the warriors. He introduced himself as Ailani, meaning "Highest Chief," and surprisingly enough, he spoke in the English language. He told Benny, "I have decided that we are not going to punish you. We do not punish good men, so you can relax." The chief continued, "I heard what you did for us. Your kindness makes me say welcome. Welcome to Life Island." Tears of relief poured down Benny's face.
[2강- 04번: Charlotte이 준비한 추수 감사절 파티]
"I think everyone is here now! Shall we all sit down?" Everyone was more than happy to cooperate and soon the whole group was settled in their chairs around the long dining room table, passing dishes filled with Charlotte's cooking. Soon, everyone had a full plate and conversation buzzed around the table between bites. Charlotte took a careful bite of her stuffing and found that the seasonings had all blended together beautifully to create a flavorful experience. She relaxed a bit more as she sampled the dishes on her plate and found that everything tasted good. Or, at least, she thought so. She just hoped everyone else felt the same way. As if reading her mind, Addison leaned over to her. "Everything tastes so delicious," she said quietly, patting her belly and indicating her already half-eaten plate. "You're going to have to roll me out of here when all is said and done." "Eat as much as you like," Charlotte replied with a laugh. "There's no judgment, especially on Thanksgiving!"
[3강- Gateway:고객의 칭찬에 대한 응답]
Being able to prioritize your responses allows you to connect more deeply with individual customers, be it a one-off interaction around a particularly delightful or upsetting experience, or the development of a longer-term relationship with a significantly influential individual within your customer base. If you've ever posted a favorable comment ― or any comment, for that matter ― about a brand, product or service, think about what it would feel like if you were personally acknowledged by the brand manager, for example, as a result. In general, people post because they have something to say ― and because they want to be recognized for having said it. In particular, when people post positive comments they are expressions of appreciation for the experience that led to the post. While a compliment to the person standing next to you is typically answered with a response like "Thank You," the sad fact is that most brand compliments go unanswered. These are lost opportunities to understand what drove the compliments and create a solid fan based on them.
[3강- 01번:창의력에 관한 오해]
One of the biggest misconceptions about creativity is that it takes a brilliant idea to solve a complex problem. While this may be true in pure sciences, in most commercial contexts, or even in day-to-day living, it is never that one silver bullet that does the magic. It is, in fact, a series of seemingly simple ideas that counts. The key is to have enough ideas that solve specific parts of the overall problem, and then the thorny task looks very much tenable. Since creativity comes from combining concepts in an unusual fashion, and since it is exceedingly difficult to trace the origins of ideas, you are better off generating as many ideas as possible with the hope that some of them would click. That is what great scientists and artists do. As the author Walter Isaacson notes, 'The sparks come from ideas rubbing against each other rather than as bolts out of the blue.'
[3강- 02번:환경을 위한 선택]
Sometimes it is hard to know the right thing to do for the planet. What sounds good may not necessarily be so. Rooftop solar panels, for example, are one of the most expensive and least effective ways to help the environment. Buying local food can actually increase water pollution and waste. According to research from the Danish and UK governments, plastic grocery bags may actually be better than cotton bags for the climate and for water. You may disagree with all or some of those claims, and you may be right. It depends on your individual circumstances. If you live in Phoenix, Arizona, for example, solar panels could be a smart choice. Using your own cotton bags continuously and without exception for shopping for several years is probably better for the environment than the alternatives. Each of these choices depends on personal circumstances and behavior. The best solutions for the environment are personal.
[3강- 03번:장애인에 대한 편견]
Consider people with disabilities. Often they are judged using criteria of competence that are biased in favor of nondisabled people. Compare, for example, an average blind person with an average sighted person. Who will be more competent in walking from one place to another? You might think that the sighted person will be more competent because the sighted person can see where he or she is going, but this is using an unfair criterion. If you think about competence based on the fairer criterion of who can best walk with the eyes closed, then the blind person will definitely be more competent. Such knowledge about people who are blind and, by extension, other socially marginalized people, can make us appreciate them and celebrate their unique abilities as they really are, rather than discriminate against, pity, or patronize them for some incompetence that does not exist except as a figment of our traditional, prejudiced imaginations.
[3강- 04번:상상의 본질]
When you think, you are using your imagination to create an image or picture in your mind of an event rather than the real thing. If you are driving home from a football match, reviewing the game in your mind, you are merely imagining what the game was like. The game is no longer real; it's now only in your mind, in your memory. It was real once, but not any longer. Similarly, if you are thinking about how bad your marriage is, you are considering it in your mind. It's all in your imagination. You are literally 'making up' your relationship. The thoughts you are having about your relationship are just thoughts. This is why the old saying, 'Things aren't as bad as they seem' is almost always true. The reason things 'seem so bad' is because your mind is able to recreate past events, and preview upcoming events, almost as though they were happening right in front of you, at that moment ― even though they're not. To make matters worse, your mind can add additional drama to any event, thereby making that event seem even worse than it really is, or was, or will be.
[4강- Gateway:조직의 문화 형성의 조건]
Values alone do not create and build culture. Living your values only some of the time does not contribute to the creation and maintenance of culture. Changing values into behaviors is only half the battle. Certainly, this is a step in the right direction, but those behaviors must then be shared and distributed widely throughout the organization, along with a clear and concise description of what is expected. It is not enough to simply talk about it. It is critical to have a visual representation of the specific behaviors that leaders and all people managers can use to coach their people. Just like a sports team has a playbook with specific plays designed to help them perform well and win, your company should have a playbook with the key shifts needed to transform your culture into action and turn your values into winning behaviors.
[4강- 01번:성과에 대한 긍정적이고 구체적인 인정]
Most people don't equate silence with appreciation. People whose work is always good still need to hear it from you occasionally. Let them know you've noticed they are meeting their goals. Acknowledgement and appreciation create a supportive work environment and keep motivation alive. Make your appreciation specific and positive by noting what was done well and why it matters. This makes people feel good and it also ensures that the behaviour you identify is repeated. So, don't just say, "That was great!" Say, "That was great because ..." Both teams and individuals need positive, specific information about their accomplishments. Use your imagination: post graphs showing what the team has achieved; mark the achievement of major milestones or goals by bringing in sandwiches for lunch for everyone to share or putting up balloons; send thank you notes. When you ignore success, people think it doesn't matter and stop trying.
[4강- 02번:뉴스의 질을 판단하는 기준]
The quality of news is difficult to measure because there are no agreed-upon standards that satisfy everyone's definition of high quality. The term quality generally refers to any attribute, service, or performance that is highly valued within a group or a community. Defining quality is thus context-dependent, field-specific, and subject to individual preferences and tastes. It is important to note, however, that compared to other cultural products such as music and paintings, journalistic content is unique because it has a strong civic and democratic component. The idea of the press as the "fourth estate" stems from the expectation that high-quality journalism promotes democratic ideals by playing the role of a watchdog, providing a public forum, and serving as a reliable information provider. Therefore, when discussing news quality, normative aspects cannot be overemphasized.
[4강- 03번:적과 반대자]
One thing that managers have to keep in mind is that they should mend fences after any fight. Opponents are not necessarily enemies. An opponent disagrees with you on the issue, of course, but enemies are ones with whom you also have a negative relationship. That makes it personal. You can often work with opponents and strategize toward mutually successful outcomes, but enemies are far more difficult and consequently far more dangerous. Try to keep opponents from becoming enemies, and work to turn enemies into mere opponents. Find points of agreement, and find ways you can legitimately support those who were your opponents. The subject of the fight will eventually recede, but you still need the relationships.
[4강- 04번:끊임없는 경제 성장 추구의 문제점]
Political decisions and management decisions about how much of any given species can be harvested are often based on the amount of money there is to be made. Profit leads to economic growth, which is the goal of many politicians and business leaders. But the problem with seeking continuous economic growth is that our economy is not separate from our environment. Everything in our economy comes from our environment. We extract resources from the world around us, consume them as products we eat or use, and then dump the waste back into the Earth. Our Earth is a finite ecosystem, which means there is only so much that we can take from the natural world to feed our economy, and only so much waste that the Earth can absorb, before natural processes stop functioning properly. The constant effort to extract more and more resources is actually an ecological impossibility over the long term. Our survival depends on learning to live within the limits of ecosystems.
[5강- Gateway:스트레스에 대처하는 자세]
How you focus your attention plays a critical role in how you deal with stress. Scattered attention harms your ability to let go of stress, because even though your attention is scattered, it is narrowly focused, for you are able to fixate only on the stressful parts of your experience. When your attentional spotlight is widened, you can more easily let go of stress. You can put in perspective many more aspects of any situation and not get locked into one part that ties you down to superficial and anxiety-provoking levels of attention. A narrow focus heightens the stress level of each experience, but a widened focus turns down the stress level because you're better able to put each situation into a broader perspective. One anxiety-provoking detail is less important than the bigger picture. It's like transforming yourself into a nonstick frying pan. You can still fry an egg, but the egg won't stick to the pan.
[5강- 01번:지속 가능성을 추구하는 것의 엄중함]
There are no black-and-white issues in life. No categorical answers. Everything is a subject for endless debate and compromise. This is one of the core principles of our current society. Because that core principle is wrong, the society ends up causing a lot of problems when it comes to sustainability. There are some issues that are black and white. There are indeed planetary and societal boundaries that must not be crossed. For instance, we think our societies can be a little bit more or a little bit less sustainable. But in the long run you cannot be a little bit sustainable ― either you are sustainable or you are unsustainable. It is like walking on thin ice ― either it carries your weight, or it does not. Either you make it to the shore, or you fall into the deep, dark, cold waters. And if that should happen to us, there will not be any nearby planet coming to our rescue. We are completely on our own.
[5강- 02번: 19세기 시장 사회의 철학]
The modern corporation as a child of laissez-faire economics and of the market society is based on a creed whose greatest weakness is the inability to see the need for status and function of the individual in society. In the philosophy of the market society there is no other social criterion than economic reward. Henry Maine's famous epigram that the course of modern history has been from status to contract neatly summarizes the belief of the nineteenth century, that social status and function should be exclusively the result of economic advancement. This emphasis was the result of a rebellion against a concept of society which defined human position exclusively in terms of politically determined status, and which thus denied equality of opportunity. But the rebellion went too far. In order to establish justice it denied meaning and fulfillment to those who cannot advance ― that is, to the majority ― instead of realizing that the good society must give both justice and status.
[5강- 03번:섬유 재활용의 비현실성]
The notion of a "circular economy" ― in which materials circulate continuously, being used and reused time and time again ― is an appealing vision. However, it is crucial to highlight just how far we are from that goal at present. Although most textiles are entirely recyclable, 73 percent of waste clothing was incinerated or went to landfills globally in 2015. Just 12 percent was recycled into low-value textile applications such as mattress stuffing and less than 1 percent was recycled back into clothing. Some would question how realistic the idea of "closing the loop" can be; the complexity of the fashion system means that there are multiple opportunities for materials to "leak" from the reuse cycle. Furthermore, it must be noted that fiber recycling is not without its own environmental footprint. Even the reuse of secondhand clothing has implications in terms of resource use and waste, particularly if items are transported over long distances, dry cleaned, and repackaged.
[5강- 04번:시간의 영향]
When anticipating the effects of time, we should mentally forecast what they are likely to be; we should not practically stop them from happening, by demanding the immediate performance of promises which time alone can fulfill. The man who makes his demand will find out that there is no worse or stricter usurer than Time; and that, if you compel Time to give money in advance, you will have to pay a rate of interest much higher than any usurer would require. It is possible, for instance, to make a tree burst forth into leaf, blossom, or even bear fruit within a few days, by the application of unslaked lime and artificial heat; but after that the tree will wither away. So a young man may abuse his strength ― it may be only for a few weeks ― by trying to do at nineteen what he could easily manage at thirty, and Time may give him the loan for which he asks; but the interest he will have to pay comes out of the strength of his later years; indeed, it is part of his very life itself.
[6강- Gateway:삼림지가 제공하는 생태계 서비스의 비시장적 가치]
Managers of natural resources typically face market incentives that provide financial rewards for exploitation. For example, owners of forest lands have a market incentive to cut down trees rather than manage the forest for carbon capture, wildlife habitat, flood protection, and other ecosystem services. These services provide the owner with no financial benefits, and thus are unlikely to influence management decisions. But the economic benefits provided by these services, based on their non-market values, may exceed the economic value of the timber. For example, a United Nations initiative has estimated that the economic benefits of ecosystem services provided by tropical forests, including climate regulation, water purification, and erosion prevention, are over three times greater per hectare than the market benefits. Thus cutting down the trees is economically inefficient, and markets are not sending the correct "signal" to favor ecosystem services over extractive uses.
[6강- 01번:표준화 시험 위주 교육의 문제점]
There are disturbing changes underway in today's school systems. Funding is frequently tied to scores achieved on standardized tests, which primarily evaluate rote memory. Teaching "to" tests like these inevitably focuses resources and curriculum on the lower-scoring students. The pressure to bring up test scores for these struggling students limits time for the kinds of individualized learning that challenges all students to reach their highest potential, and teachers have less opportunity to encourage creative thinking and incorporate hands-on activities. When education is not enriched by exploration, discovery, problem solving, and creative thinking, students are not truly engaged in their own learning. Because teachers are required to emphasize uninspiring workbooks and drills, more and more students are developing negative feelings about mathematics, science, history, grammar, and writing. Opportunities to authentically learn and retain knowledge are being replaced by instruction that teaches "to the tests."
[6강- 02번:성인 뇌의 적응성]
For many years, it was indeed widely believed that the adult brain was essentially 'set', with all the neurons and major connections we'd need. Sure, we learn new things and update our understanding of things all the time, meaning new connections are regularly being formed and turned over in networks governing learning and memory. But in terms of overall physical structure and major connections, the stuff that makes us 'what we are', the adult brain was long thought to be 'done'. However, in recent years there's been a steady stream of evidence revealing that the adult brain can change and adapt, even create new neurons, and experiences can still reshape the brain, even as we head into our twilight years. Consider the taxi driver study, where constant driving and navigation of chaotic London streets leads to increased hippocampus size, revealing the adult brain structure is somewhat malleable.
[6강- 03번:이념적 원칙에 맞춰 창의적으로 거래 성사시키기]
Often ideological principles crystallize in laws, rules, and institutions that threaten to block deals. Nationalism requires that all resources belong to the state and that no one else may own them. Islamic fundamentalism prohibits interest payments on loans. Egyptian socialism demands that workers participate both in the management and the profits of an enterprise. Each of these principles can be an obstacle to deal making in particular cases. Yet, with some creativity, it is possible to structure a deal in such a way that the ideological principle is respected but business goes forward. For example, worker participation in management need not mean a seat on the company's board of directors, but simply an advisory committee that meets regularly with an officer of the company. And a petroleum development contract could be written in such a way that the ownership of oil is transferred not when the oil is in the ground but at the point that it leaves the flange of the well.
[6강- 04번:지속 가능성에 대한 과학의 기여도]
The unquestioned assumption that any and all scientific knowledge ― and associated technology ― contributes to sustainability derives from faith in the importance of objective knowledge for solving global problems. Scientists obtain power and become the priests of our era to the extent that they provide a special form of knowledge that can be used to do such wonderful things. And we often consider that the final test of scientific knowledge: we can do things with its results, such as applying it to reverse the decline of an endangered species. Regardless, we know now that the linear view of the relation between science and social outcomes is flawed. Science may allow us to do things, but we can assess its contribution to sustainability only by incorporating broader contextual and socio-ecological questions. We typically think of sustainability as doing something out there in the world, when in fact we may need to first reassess the way we are setting the problem.
[7강- Gateway:단순하지 않은 과잉 관광의 개념]
The concept of overtourism rests on a particular assumption about people and places common in tourism studies and the social sciences in general. Both are seen as clearly defined and demarcated. People are framed as bounded social actors either playing the role of hosts or guests. Places, in a similar way, are treated as stable containers with clear boundaries. Hence, places can be full of tourists and thus suffer from overtourism. But what does it mean for a place to be full of people? Indeed, there are examples of particular attractions that have limited capacity and where there is actually no room for more visitors. This is not least the case with some man-made constructions such as the Eiffel Tower. However, with places such as cities, regions or even whole countries being promoted as destinations and described as victims of overtourism, things become more complex. What is excessive or out of proportion is highly relative and might be more related to other aspects than physical capacity, such as natural degradation and economic leakages (not to mention politics and local power dynamics).
[7강- 01번:낭비되는 식품을 줄이는 방안]
According to research from the University of Arizona's Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology, the average household ends up wasting an average of 14 percent of its grocery spending by throwing away unused or spoiled food. Even worse, 15 percent of that waste includes products that were never opened and were still within their expiration date! (This statistic really makes me cringe ― why not just set dollar bills on fire while we're at it?) The study also found that a family of four ends up throwing away an average of $590 of perishable groceries per year, such as meat, produce, dairy, and grain products. You can save an average of $50 per month by avoiding overbuying perishable foods. Check your supplies before shopping and estimate the exact amount you'll need to buy for the next week. This is also a good time to throw away outdated leftovers, make sure perishable items are in view, and use up good leftovers for that day's meals.
[7강- 02번:근거 없는 믿음이 되는 오래된 오류]
Throughout history, human imagination has been a double-edged sword. On one hand, it pushes new discoveries, but for every newly established scientific fact, there are often multiple incorrect hypotheses, which must be corrected along the way or risk becoming myths. Thomas Edison is credited with saying: "I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work," implying that error is part of invention. Unfortunately, if errors or partial truths get circulated long enough, they can lead to a false echo chamber of repetition and suggest "truth" where none exists. For example, even though the humors have been discredited for centuries, some still believe in the myth that blood types (blood being one of the four humors) can determine personalities. A quick internet search finds more than five million websites related to this topic, meaning this myth is slow to die.
[7강- 03번:혼자 하는 예술 활동의 이점]
Ideally, when we make art or engage in any creative activity by ourselves, we recognize its value and make time and space for it in our lives. The boom in coloring books and coloring pages in the past few years is one such example. It takes away the challenging part of visual art-making and skills and provides us with a level of challenge that is relatively easy and manageable. Our studies with cancer patients and caregivers showed that solitary activities like coloring helped in meditative and reflective ways by taking us to a space of distraction away from everyday concerns. Such activities do not necessarily help us resolve our problems; rather, they provide a time to rest and a way to focus our attention elsewhere until such time as we can address them directly. When we make art by ourselves, it can help us self-regulate; feel a sense of mastery, control, and agency over our lives; and engage in reflective, validating, contemplative, or meditative practices.
[7강- 04번:과학에서 중요한 것]
When Galileo rolled the balls down the inclined plane, he didn't merely look and see what happened. He very carefully measured the distance traveled and the time it took to travel that distance. From these measurements, he calculated the speed of travel. What he came up with was a mathematical equation relating numerical quantities. We can imagine that when he observed the moons of Jupiter, he didn't merely see some spots at various different places from night to night: he kept track of where the spots were, compared their positions from night to night, and perhaps did some calculations intended to compute what path they were traveling, to find out that their change in apparent position was consistent with their being bodies moving around Jupiter. Similarly, in my hypothetical bird experiment I imagined myself as a budding junior scientist weighing the stuff I put into the cage and calculating percentages by weight of what was eaten. It's obvious: numbers are important to science. Scientists measure and calculate; they don't just observe.
[8강- Gateway:때때로 또는 자주 적극적으로 뉴스를 회피한 응답자 비율]
The above graph shows the percentages of the respondents in five countries who sometimes or often actively avoided news in 2017, 2019, and 2022. For each of the three years, Ireland showed the highest percentage of the respondents who sometimes or often actively avoided news, among the countries in the graph. In Germany, the percentage of the respondents who sometimes or often actively avoided news was less than 30% in each of the three years. In Denmark, the percentage of the respondents who sometimes or often actively avoided news in 2019 was higher than that in 2017 but lower than that in 2022. In Finland, the percentage of the respondents who sometimes or often actively avoided news in 2019 was lower than that in 2017, which was also true for Japan. In Japan, the percentage of the respondents who sometimes or often actively avoided news did not exceed 15% in each of the three years.
[8강- 01번:국가별1인당 연간 음식물 쓰레기 양]
The above graph shows the total annual food waste at the retail and household stages, per capita, for nine selected countries. Among the countries, Saudi Arabia had the largest amount of total annual food waste per capita, immediately followed by Australia and Denmark. Austria was the only country whose total annual food waste per capita was less than 50 kg. In terms of the annual food waste per capita at the retail stage, Denmark topped the list with more than 25 kg. Germany had almost the same amount of total annual food waste per capita as the UK. At the household stage, the US wasted almost as much as New Zealand; additionally, the former wasted even less than the latter at the retail stage.
[8강- 02번:세계 스키 핫스팟의 시즌별 평균 스키어 방문 수]
The above graph shows the latest 5-year average number of skier visits per season in the world's skiing hotspots, as of April 2022. The United States had the largest average number of skier visits per season among the ten countries, with more than 50 million domestic skiers. Austria had the second largest average number of skier visits per season among the ten countries and recorded the most foreign skier visits. The average number of domestic skier visits per season in Japan was more than that of domestic and foreign skier visits per season combined in Italy. The average number of skier visits per season in Italy was more than that in Switzerland, with a difference of three hundred thousand visits. The two countries with less than ten million average skier visits per season were Sweden and Germany, and the latter had more skiers than the former.
[8강- 03번:미국 학생들이 재미로 책을 읽는 빈도]
The graphs above show the survey results on how often U.S. students aged 9 and 13 read for fun from 1984 to 2020. In 1984, more than half of 9-year-olds said they read for fun almost every day, but in 2020 the proportion dropped to the same level as that of 9-year-olds who said they read for fun less frequently. In 2020, the proportion of 9-year-olds who said they never or hardly ever read for fun was at its highest level in the survey period. Among the 13-year-olds surveyed in 2020, 17% said they read for fun almost every day, which was less than half the percentage who said this in 1984. In 2020, about three-in-ten students in this age group said they never or hardly ever read for fun, an increase of 21 percentage points compared to 1984. In 2020, the share of 13-year-olds who reported reading for fun less frequently was 12 percentage points lower than that of their 9-year-old counterparts.
[8강- 04번:미국 성인의 온라인 쇼핑 기기]
The above graph shows the devices that U.S. adults used for their online shopping in 2022, including the distribution for each device by age and income. In 2022, smartphones were the most preferred method of online shopping for most Americans, with around three-quarters saying they used a smartphone for online purchases. In comparison, 69% reported using a desktop or laptop computer for online shopping, while only 28% said they used a tablet. The use of smartphones for online shopping was more common among adults under 50 years old, especially with 92% of those aged 30 to 49 reporting that they shopped online using a smartphone. Meanwhile, when it comes to age differences in online shopping using tablets, those aged 18 to 29 were more likely to use a tablet for online shopping than those aged 30 and older. Device types for online shopping also varied by household income, with those with higher incomes more likely to use each device for online purchases.
[9강- Gateway:미국의 물리학자Charles H. Townes]
Charles H. Townes, one of the most influential American physicists, was born in South Carolina. In his childhood, he grew up on a farm, studying the stars in the sky. He earned his doctoral degree from the California Institute of Technology in 1939, and then he took a job at Bell Labs in New York City. After World War II, he became an associate professor of physics at Columbia University. In 1958, Townes and his co-researcher proposed the concept of the laser. Laser technology won quick acceptance in industry and research. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964. He was also involved in Project Apollo, the moon landing project. His contribution is priceless because the Internet and all digital media would be unimaginable without the laser.
[9강- 01번: Gladys West의 생애]
Gladys West is an American mathematician. She was born in rural Virginia in 1930. She grew up on her family's small farm and dreamed of getting a good education. She worked hard and received a scholarship to Virginia State College (now Virginia State University), a historically black university. In 1956 she was hired as a mathematician at the naval base in Dahlgren, Virginia. She was the second black woman to be hired at the base and was one of only four black employees. There, West made significant contributions to the applied mathematics that deals with the measurement of the Earth's size, shape, and gravitational field. West and her team created a model that allows the GPS system to make accurate calculations of any location on Earth. West retired from the base in 1998 at the age of 68 but continued her education. She later completed a PhD in Public Administration at Virginia Tech by distance-learning.
[9강- 02번:포르투갈 전통 음악fado]
Fado means "fate" in Portuguese, but is also the name of a form of music originating in Lisbon. It is usually performed by one singer, accompanied by dual guitarras (mandolin-shaped 12-string guitars) and a viola (Spanish guitar). Fado lyrics frequently focus on the hard realities of daily life, or the trials of love. Fado is also linked with the notion of saudade, which is a longing for something impossible to attain. Fadistas, as fado singers are known, often wear a black shawl of mourning, although songs can also be upbeat. Since the 19th century, fado has been performed in bars and clubs in working-class districts of Lisbon. It flourished during the Salazar years, before falling out of favour after the 1974 Revolution. In recent times, the genre has been revived and a new generation of musicians and singers can be heard in casas de fado, around Lisbon.
[9강- 03번:마야의 구기 경기]
The Mayan ball game was a very important part of Mayan culture. The ball games were played either by 2 players or by 2 teams of players. The object of the game was to put a ball through one of the stone rings while stopping the other team from putting the ball through the other stone ring. The ball was a little larger than a basketball and was made of solid rubber. For protection, players wore hard leather gloves, elbow and knee pads, masks, and belts that were made of wood or stone. Although not all historians agree, some think the rules did not allow players to touch the ball with their hands or feet. They used only their elbows, hips, and knees to hit the ball, and had to keep the ball from touching the ground. Spectators from all classes liked to watch and bet on the games.
[9강- 04번:조각가Lysippus]
Lysippus was the most prominent, prolific and longest-lived of the great 4th-century BC sculptors. He was active, reportedly making 1,500 works, all of them in bronze. Considered the most accomplished artist of his age, Lysippus suitably became Alexander the Great's favourite - in fact, court-sculptor. The world-conqueror allowed almost no one else to sculpt him. Lysippus went on to make portrait busts of many of Alexander's warring successors, such as Cassander and Seleucus I. A native of Sicyon in the Peloponnese, Lysippus ran a workshop of almost industrial size that was continued after his death by his sons. Ancient writers such as Pliny relate that Lysippus invented an entirely new canon, or mathematically calculated ideal beauty, almost displacing that of Polyclitus.
[11강- Gateway:타인을 모방하려는 인간의 타고난 성향]
A number of studies provide substantial evidence of an innate human disposition to respond differentially to social stimuli. From birth, infants will orient preferentially towards the human face and voice, seeming to know that such stimuli are particularly meaningful for them. Moreover, they register this connection actively, imitating a variety of facial gestures that are presented to them ― tongue protrusions, lip tightenings, mouth openings. They will even try to match gestures with which they have some difficulty, experimenting with their own faces until they succeed. When they do succeed, they show pleasure by a brightening of their eyes; when they fail, they show distress. In other words, they not only have an innate capacity for matching their own kinaesthetically experienced bodily movements with those of others that are visually perceived; they have an innate drive to do so. That is, they seem to have an innate drive to imitate others whom they judge to be 'like me'.
[11강- 01번:컴퓨터 은유]
A good way to make human-machine interaction more natural would be to develop a better metaphor. A computer metaphor is a familiar object or activity that your computer imitates with its commands, display arrangements, and behavior. The two main metaphors we have today are the desktop and the browser. In the desktop metaphor, the display screen mimics a typical desk; information is kept inside folders, which can be opened, closed, and slipped into other folders. With Web browsing, the metaphor is downtown window shopping; you gaze at various "storefronts," see one you like, and (click) you enter. Inside, there are more options to browse, you choose another, and again you enter. Like a linguistic metaphor, the power of a good computer metaphor is that it makes a new system you don't know behave like an old "system" with which you are familiar. This lets you use the new system and get useful results out of it easily, since you don't have to struggle learning new concepts and commands.
[11강- 02번:토양 침식의 원인이 되는 인간 활동]
Human activity on the landscape can significantly contribute to soil erosion. In a natural state, vegetation serves as natural protection against erosion because the network of roots helps hold the soil in place against various erosive forces, such as wind and water. Scientists estimate that, in the United States, 30% of erosion is due to natural forces and 70% is due to human impact. Oftentimes, when people use the land for farming, the protective covering of natural vegetation is destroyed, and the erosion process speeds up. In fact, studies have shown that artificially created erosion played a big part in the downfall of many early civilizations. Poor land management practices degraded the soil until it was no longer productive enough to support the population living in the area. Early civilizations that recognized the disastrous effects of erosion used devices such as terracing the land to keep from plowing, planting, and irrigating on hillside slopes where water could wash the fertile soil away.
[11강- 03번:네안데르탈인의 특징]
It used to be thought that Neanderthals were dim-witted, slouching cavemen completely covered with hair. But this reputation is based on just one fossil, which modern scholarship has proved happens to be that of an old, diseased, and injured man. He was approximately forty or forty-five years old when he died ― very old for people at that time. Healthy Neanderthals probably walked erect. Objects found at Neanderthal sites show that Neanderthals could make complex tools. The characteristics of their skulls suggest that they probably could speak, although perhaps not with the full range of sounds that modern humans make. Sites also show that they did not necessarily live in caves, but, if they did, they likely altered the caves to make them more livable. Sometimes they built shelters rather than settled in caves. In 1996, scientists digging at a Neanderthal site in Slovenia announced they had found what appeared to be a musical instrument, a flute made from a bear bone.
[11강- 04번:제도적 차별과 개인적 차별]
Discrimination occurs on two levels: institutional and individual. On the institutional level, discriminatory practices are embedded in the social structures of a society, whereas on the individual level, discrimination takes place during direct interactions among individuals or groups. Unlike individual discrimination, which tends to be overt, intentional, and direct, institutional discrimination is often covert and unintentional, and this invisibility makes it much harder to detect. Standardized testing in schools, for example, may exclude certain historically marginalized groups from succeeding in academic settings. Although the government may not have intentionally established testing standards that are culturally or class biased, in practice these standards tend to have a disproportionate negative effect on ethnic minority students. Furthermore, institutional discrimination often has a generational or cyclical impact on certain ethnic minority groups and therefore its consequences are as severe, if not more so, than for those suffering individual discrimination.
[12강- Gateway:바자 경제]
Bazaar economies feature an apparently flexible price-setting mechanism that sits atop more enduring ties of shared culture. Both the buyer and seller are aware of each other's restrictions. In Delhi's bazaars, buyers and sellers can assess to a large extent the financial constraints that other actors have in their everyday life. Each actor belonging to a specific economic class understands what the other sees as a necessity and a luxury. In the case of electronic products like video games, they are not a necessity at the same level as other household purchases such as food items. So, the seller in Delhi's bazaars is careful not to directly ask for very high prices for video games because at no point will the buyer see possession of them as an absolute necessity. Access to this type of knowledge establishes a price consensus by relating to each other's preferences and limitations of belonging to a similar cultural and economic universe.
[12강- 01번:익숙함에 대한 선호]
One should perhaps ask why even very simple animals would prefer familiar stimuli or familiar other animals. A tendency to grow fond of the familiar would help stamp in the preference for a stable environment (so animals might learn to like their homes). It would certainly promote stable social bonds. Imagine, for example, that nature programmed animals in the opposite way, so that familiarity led to contempt or some other form of disliking. How would families stay together? How would friendships, alliances, or other partnerships survive? If you always preferred a stranger to someone you knew, social life would be in constant turmoil and turnover. In contrast, if you automatically grew to like the people you saw regularly, you would soon prefer them over strangers, and groups would form and stabilize easily. Given the advantages of stable groups (e.g., people know each other, know how to work together, know how to make decisions together, know how to adjust to each other), it is not surprising that nature favored animals that grew to like (rather than dislike) each other on the basis of familiarity.
[12강- 02번:집단 순응 사고]
Social psychologist Irving Janis recognized the problems of groupthink, but felt that it could be avoided. It is most likely to develop when team spirit becomes more important than the opinions of individual members. It's also likely to form if the group is made up of like-minded people to begin with, and if they are faced with a difficult decision. To prevent groupthink, Janis proposed a system of organization that encourages independent thinking. The leader of the group should appear to be impartial, so that members do not feel any pressure to obey. Furthermore, he or she should get the group to examine all the options, and to consult people outside the group, too. Disagreement, Janis argued, is actually a good thing, and he suggested that members should be asked to play "devil's advocate" ― introducing an alternative point of view in order to provoke discussion. In addition to ensuring that the group comes to more rational and fair decisions, allowing members to retain their individuality creates a healthier team spirit than the state of groupthink, which results from conformity and obedience.
[12강- 03번:사이버공간에서의 프라이버시]
The alternative world provided by cyberspace is essentially an ideal private world in which each person controls the information that is revealed. In this world, the full identity of the person is not revealed, and the two people are physically remote from each other. Hence, it is much easier to keep private whatever areas the participants so wish. These circumstances do not lead the participants to remain completely mysterious ― on the contrary, in many cases it leads the participants to reveal much more about themselves than they would usually do. When we can keep private that which seems to threaten us, we can be more open concerning other matters. The greater degree of openness generates a greater degree of emotional closeness as well. Accordingly, in online relationships we can find both greater privacy and greater closeness and openness ― this considerably reduces the common conflict between openness and privacy.
[12강- 04번:은행식 교육 모델]
People often have different definitions of education, as the nature of education is somewhat fluid. Nearly 600 years ago the printing press changed the way much of education occurred. Students began reading information, coupled with the information a teacher would share. To ensure that the student had retained the information, a test or paper was often required to make an assessment of that retention. This downloading of information is known as the banking model, and what the banking model does is it reduces the student from being a critical and independent thinker to being a receptacle for facts. The process of the banking model raises the power and control of the teacher while failing to recognize that students are more than simply unthinking blank slates. The concept, then, is placed squarely into the minds of students, who are taught that they are subservient and beholden to the keeper of information. As a result, students have little control over their own thinking and their own education.
[13강- Gateway:영화에서 친숙한 악보가 하는 역할]
A musical score within any film can add an additional layer to the film text, which goes beyond simply imitating the action viewed. In films that tell of futuristic worlds, composers, much like sound designers, have added freedom to create a world that is unknown and new to the viewer. However, unlike sound designers, composers often shy away from creating unique pieces that reflect these new worlds and often present musical scores that possess familiar structures and cadences. While it is possible that this may interfere with creativity and a sense of space and time, it in fact aids in viewer access to the film. Through recognizable scores, visions of the future or a galaxy far, far away can be placed within a recognizable context. Such familiarity allows the viewer to be placed in a comfortable space so that the film may then lead the viewer to what is an unfamiliar, but acceptable vision of a world different from their own.
[13강- 01번:부모의 문제 상황 대처가 자녀의 자존감 형성에 주는 영향]
In his 1967 book, Coopersmith first noticed a positive relationship between self-esteem levels in mothers and their children. But Bednar, Wells, and Peterson made considerable use of this factor by pointing out that parents actually show their children the route to self-esteem by how they handle their own challenges, conflicts, and issues. The impact of parents' behavior upon the child's self-esteem is undeniable; given the immaturity of children, however, parents' expression of their own resolution of the self-esteem question is far more influential than what they teach verbally. Parents who face life's challenges honestly and openly and who attempt to cope with difficulties instead of avoiding them thereby expose their children early to a pro-self-esteem problem-solving strategy. Those who avoid dealing with difficulties reveal a negative route for handling the challenges and problems of life. Either way, it is important to remember that modeling helps set the stage for healthy self-esteem or problems with it.
[13강- 02번:판매 촉진을 위한 새로운 용도 제공]
Several different strategies will be used to get us to buy. For new products, marketers want to motivate us to try their product, so the job is to advertise it as much as possible to get the word out. With an established product, marketers will either want us to try it again (reminder advertising), or they may try to get us to consume more of their product. A good way to do this is to provide new uses. One brand of baking soda is a good example. After women entered the job market en masse in the 1960s and there was less time for baking, the company promoted using the product to keep the freezer and refrigerator smelling clean ― and to change the box every three months. Or when women started earning significant salaries and getting married later, the diamond industry started selling diamond rings to women, claiming that the left hand is for "we" and the right is for "me."
[13강- 03번:통제하는 부모를 둔 아기들의 성향]
When kids feel forced to do things ― or are too tightly regulated in the way they do things ― they're likely to become less interested in what they're doing and less likely to stick with something challenging. In an intriguing experiment, parents were invited to sit on the floor next to their very young children ― not even two years old ― who were playing with toys. Some of the parents immediately took over the task or barked out instructions ("Put the block in. No, not there. There!"). Others were content to let their kids explore, providing encouragement and offering help only when it was needed. Later, the babies were given something else to play with, this time without their parents present. It turned out that, once they were on their own, those who had controlling parents were apt to give up more easily rather than trying to figure out how the new toy worked.
[13강- 04번:필요와 욕구 사이의 경계]
It is critical, as we recreate mutual provision in a sustainable form, that we keep track of the line between needs and wants. While a permanent place for people on Earth requires that our needs be met, people gathering about themselves quantities of unnecessary goods, while others lack food and shelter, cannot be part of a durable order. A society that oppresses other people to bloat itself will not stop at undermining foreign nations. The ethic will express itself with exploitation at home. While ingenuity and hard work will still lead to improved circumstances as communities increase their effective use of local resources, when one's achieved wealth is at the expense of others, much goodwill, effort and resources will be lost to resentment, rebellion and repression. A huge bonus is available for everyone when the focus of development is securing and improving the quality of life for all.
[13강- 05번:매체와 기술 자체에 대한 주목]
As Marshall McLuhan suggested so presciently in 1964, "the medium is the message," which means that, beyond the content that is conveyed, the medium itself has an impact by its very nature and unique characteristics. For example, the use of social media means that we have less need to interact with others directly. This distancing of communication has real implications for children's development. If learning to communicate with others is a skill that develops with practice, children's constant use of social media reduces the experiences they have with which to learn social skills. McLuhan asserts that we are so focused on the content of the technology that we neglect to notice the influence of the technology itself on people. This observation is certainly true today: we focus on what the technology provides (e.g., video, text messages, social media), but we fail to consider how the very act of using these advances shapes us.
[13강- 06번:도시의 지속적인 재창조]
Cities continue to reinvent themselves. In the last few decades, many have worked to reduce pollution and create appealing modern spaces by restricting polluting vehicles, encouraging energy-efficient buildings, and planting trees. In 2020, another impetus for change came in the form of COVID-19, which saw retail centres empty, businesses send workers home, and some question whether crowded cities were a safe environment. Yet cities have responded to changing circumstances in the past. Through the first kingdoms of Mesopotamia, global expansion, and the Industrial Revolution, they have evolved to remain at the heart of politics, economics, and culture. The history of the world is very much a history of great cities, and whatever future we build, these sites of trade, creativity, and transformation are likely to be at the heart of it.
[13강- 07번:문화적 특수성과 보편성]
Human cultures seem to be infinitely variable, but in fact that variability takes place within the boundaries produced by physical and mental capacities. Human languages, for example, are tremendously diverse, differing in sound, grammar, and semantics. But all are dependent upon what appears to be a uniquely human capacity and predisposition for learning languages. While the range of sounds used in human languages extends from clicks and pops to guttural stops, the distinctive speech sounds that are meaningful in all the languages of the world are but a fraction of the sounds it is possible for humans to make. Another way that we might observe the intricate relationship between the culturally specific and the universal is in the way an American boy and his Mixtec friends might react emotionally, even instinctively, to bee larvae and onion soup: whether they feel delight or disgust is determined by the way they learn to perceive food, but delight and disgust seem to be basic and universal human reactions to food.
[13강- 08번:실험에서 중요 요인 분리하기]
Think about what happens in a standard scientific experiment to find out how a certain laundry detergent bleaches. In normal use, there are several factors that may cause the detergent to act in a certain way. These will include its active ingredients, the type and temperature of the water in which the ingredients are mixed, the materials being cleaned and the machinery ― if any ― used to do the laundry. Any experiment that could hope to discover what caused bleaching would have to be devised in such a way as to ensure that the crucial factors were properly isolated from the other variables. So if, for example, the hypothesis is that it is the chlorine that does the bleaching, the experiment needs to show that if all the other factors remain the same, the presence or absence of the chlorine will determine whether the laundry detergent bleaches.
[13강- 09번: AI가 인간 지식에 미치는 영향]
Al's effects on human knowledge are paradoxical. On the one hand, AI intermediaries can navigate and analyze bodies of data vaster than the unaided human mind could have previously imagined. On the other, this power ― the ability to engage with vast bodies of data ― may also accentuate forms of manipulation and error. AI is capable of exploiting human passions more effectively than traditional propaganda. Having tailored itself to individual preferences and instincts, AI draws out responses its creator or user desires. Similarly, the deployment of AI intermediaries may also amplify inherent biases, even if these AI intermediaries are technically under human control. The dynamics of market competition prompt social media platforms and search engines to present information that users find most compelling. As a result, information that users are believed to want to see is prioritized, distorting a representative picture of reality. Much as technology accelerated the speed of information production and dissemination in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, in this era, information is being altered by the mapping of AI onto dissemination processes.
[13강- 10번:존경하는 사람을 모방하여 닮아 가는 경향]
It is not a coincidence that children turn out like their parents. From the moment you come into the world, your mother and your father are your role models. As little girls grow, they try on their mother's clothes, put on her make-up, and pretend to be her. When little boys come of age, they play with their father's tools and try to build or fix something for real. The truth of the matter is that children look up to their parents as mentors. They praise them and hold them in high regard. The greatest compliment they can give their parents as they grow is to turn out just like them. If you stop to take a personal inventory, you may find that you are much like those that you emulate. A parent, a coach, a teacher, or a leader all leave their mark on the final package with your name on it. When you look in the mirror, you may see one or all of them in the reflection.
[13강- 11번:이성과 욕망 사이의 싸움]
We are all familiar with battles between reason and desire. Socrates asks whether there are thirsty people who don't wish to drink. Indeed there are. (A sign on a faucet that reads "nonpotable water, do not drink" won't take away a person's thirst, but she won't want to drink there.) Yet there is something paradoxical about this: the word "thirsty" means "wishes to drink." So we are imagining people who wish to drink and do not wish to drink. How could that be? "It is obvious that the same thing will not be willing to do or undergo opposites in the same part of itself, in relation to the same thing, at the same time. So, if we ever find this happening in the soul, we'll know that we aren't dealing with one thing but many." In other words, since no one thing can both wish to drink and not wish to drink (in the same way at the same time), no one thing can have both of those two characteristics; we thus manage this by being more than one: one part of the soul wishes to drink, and another does not wish to drink.
[13강- 12번:미디어 경영진의 목표 고객층]
Media executives understand that they must think of their audiences as consumers who buy their products or whom they sell to advertisers. The complaining individual might be successful in getting the content changed or even removed if he or she convinces the media executives that they might otherwise lose a substantial portion of their target market. But an individual's concern will garner little attention if it is clear that the person does not belong in the target audience. The editors from Cosmopolitan magazine, which aims at 20-something single women, for example, are not likely to follow the advice of an elderly-sounding woman from rural Kansas who phones to protest what she feels are demeaning portrayals of women on covers of the magazine that she sees in the supermarket. Yet the magazine staff might well act favorably if a Cosmopolitan subscriber writes with a suggestion for a new column that would attract more of the upscale single women they want as readers.
[14강- Gateway:빠르게 말하는 것의 위험 부담]
Speaking fast is a high-risk proposition. It's nearly impossible to maintain the ideal conditions to be persuasive, well-spoken, and effective when the mouth is traveling well over the speed limit. Although we'd like to think that our minds are sharp enough to always make good decisions with the greatest efficiency, they just aren't. In reality, the brain arrives at an intersection of four or five possible things to say and sits idling for a couple of seconds, considering the options. When the brain stops sending navigational instructions back to the mouth and the mouth is moving too fast to pause, that's when you get a verbal fender bender, otherwise known as filler. Um, ah, you know, and like are what your mouth does when it has nowhere to go.
[14강- 01번:인상주의 미술]
Rejecting any academic training they had experienced, Monet and the other Impressionists believed that their art, with its objective methods of painting what they saw before them, was more sincere than any academic art. They all agreed that they aimed to capture their "sensations" or what they could see as they painted. These sensations included the flickering effects of light that our eyes capture as we regard things. In complete contrast to the Academie, the Impressionists painted ordinary, modern people in everyday and up-to-date settings, making no attempt to hide their painting techniques. They avoided symbols or any narrative content, preventing viewers from "reading" a picture, but making them experience their paintings as an isolated moment in time.
[14강- 02번:생존을 위한 식물의 경쟁]
Plants assess when they need to be competitive and when it is more prudent to be collaborative. To make this kind of decision, they weigh the energy cost relative to the benefit for improved growth and persistence. For example, although a plant would generally attempt to grow taller than a closely situated neighbor for preferential access to sunlight, if the neighbor is already significantly taller and the race is likely to be lost, the plant will temper its competitive instinct. That is, plants compete only when competition is needed to improve their ability to support their own growth and reproduction and has some likelihood of success. Once competition yields the needed results, they cease competing and shift their energy to living. For plants, competition is about survival, not the thrill of victory.
[14강- 03번:수직 이동의 속도를 높인 기계화]
Mechanisation speeded up vertical movement. Stairs and ramps were traditionally how you went up and down, so few buildings in frequent use exceeded five storeys. The Otis Company, founded in 1853 in New York, changed all that with the invention of the safety elevator (safe because it locked the car in place should the cables fail) that made taller buildings possible. Escalators came later bringing greater capacity to move more people over shorter vertical distance; they made their debut, and were a sensation, at the 1900 Paris Exposition. With elevators and escalators cities could now spread underground, with deep basements, subways and tunnels, and upwards, with high rise buildings, as well as outwards. The modern cityscape ― of which Manhattan is still the iconic exemplar ― was created.
[14강- 04번: 19세기 이전의 극장 관객]
If you wanted to be entertained in a theater before the nineteenth century, you could not avoid the fact that you were at some level participating in a dialog, a conversation, either with your fellow members of the audience, or with the actors. The idea of the audience sitting in the dark and watching the stage in silence is a new thing. Prior to the nineteenth century the audience were lit and often extremely vocal and active, even leaping on stage to fight with the cast. It was the actor David Garrick in the eighteenth century who pioneered the idea that an audience should shut up and listen. The passive and reverential silence in which today's actors can indulge themselves is a new phenomenon, as, of course, is the cinema, where our surrogates on the screen can unfold their stories unaware of our responses.
[15강- Gateway:규범 발생 과정]
Norms emerge in groups as a result of people conforming to the behavior of others. Thus, the start of a norm occurs when one person acts in a particular manner in a particular situation because she thinks she ought to. Others may then conform to this behavior for a number of reasons. The person who performed the initial action may think that others ought to behave as she behaves in situations of this sort. Thus, she may prescribe the behavior to them by uttering the norm statement in a prescriptive manner. Alternately, she may communicate that conformity is desired in other ways, such as by gesturing. In addition, she may threaten to sanction them for not behaving as she wishes. This will cause some to conform to her wishes and act as she acts. But some others will not need to have the behavior prescribed to them. They will observe the regularity of behavior and decide on their own that they ought to conform. They may do so for either rational or moral reasons.
[15강- 01번:세계화에 대한 대안적 개념의 필요성]
Globalization has often been studied as a macro phenomenon. However, as the globalization process obviously affects individuals' lives, a need for alternative concepts has emerged. Concepts such as cosmopolitanism and global citizenship have therefore frequently been used to capture how globalization is experienced "from below", with individuals as the object of analysis. Here, cosmopolitanism is interpreted as having many similarities to global citizenship. For instance, cultural sociologist John Tomlinson claims that being a cosmopolitan means that one has an active experience of "belonging to the wider world". As such, cosmopolitanism is closely connected to identity; a cosmopolitan obtains a reflexive awareness of the features that unite us as human beings. This requires the ability to question one's own assumptions and prejudices. Identity is in this context not essentialist or stable; rather, it is fragmented and constructed and reconstructed across the different practices and positions in which one participates.
[15강- 02번:원폭 피해자들을 만난Roosevelt여사]
On June 17, 1953, Mrs. Roosevelt traveled to Hiroshima, where she visited the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission, an American research group that studied the effects of the nuclear attacks on bomb survivors. Many people had been injured by the fires that the bomb had caused. After her official meetings, some girls were waiting to see her. The girls explained that they did not blame her for the atomic bomb; they only wanted to impress on her the need to ensure that these weapons were never used again on human beings, given their effects. Although she did not say so directly, the girls may have been among those whose faces were permanently disfigured by the attack. This must have been a powerful encounter because Mrs. Roosevelt called it a "tragic moment." It led her to urge Americans to do more to help. Though she maintained that they were not America's direct responsibility, "as a gesture of goodwill for the victims of this last war, such help would be invaluable."
[15강- 03번: Gettier문제]
Most philosophers accepted Plato's definition of knowledge as justified true belief until the 1960s, when Edmund Gettier showed that it didn't always provide a satisfactory explanation. He came up with several instances where we instinctively realize that someone doesn't really know something, even though that person's belief is both true and justified. For example, I have arranged to meet my friend Sue at her house, and when I arrive I see her through the window sitting in the kitchen. In fact, it is not Sue that I see, but her identical twin sister ― Sue is actually in another room. My belief that Sue is home is true, and I have good reason to believe it because I am sure I have seen her, but it is wrong to say that I knew she was at home ― I didn't know. Examples such as this became known as "Gettier problems," and have prompted philosophers to ask if, in addition to belief, truth, and justification, there is a fourth criterion for knowledge. Gettier had cast doubt not only on Plato's definition, but also on whether or not it is possible to define completely what knowledge is.
[15강- 04번:이마누엘 칸트의 도덕관]
On one level, it is helpful for individuals to identify which kind of ethical system they have and which kind they admire. Immanuel Kant takes it one step further, adding an unusual rule for a deontologist. He believed that you can and should test your decisions for moral and ethical soundness and outlined a thought experiment he called the Categorical Imperative to help you do just that. When considering any course of action, ask yourself, "Would I want everyone else, if placed in my position, to do the same thing?" If the answer is yes, you're on the right path. If the answer is no, then don't do it yourself. For example, while you can easily imagine a situation in which it might be to your advantage to lie, you would not want everyone to lie, so you should not lie yourself.
[15강- 05번:컴퓨터의 생존 전략]
Life-forms work to evolve survival strategies but without necessarily being aware of the process. Consciousness is not a necessary condition of life ― though it says much about the organism that happens to possess it. Most biological species have evolved techniques and mechanisms for survival without reflecting on the fact, and this is what has happened so far with computer life-forms. We can speculate on how computers might ponder on their own survival but this is essentially a matter for the future. At present we see a host of rudimentary survival mechanisms in computers: we may expect these to develop and new ones to emerge. It is inevitable, at the present stage of their development, that computer survival strategies owe virtually everything to human involvement in computer design. However, as machine autonomy develops there will be a progressive reduction in the extent of human influence on computer evolution. Computers will come to think about their own position in the world, and take steps to enhance their own security.
[15강- 06번:도시화와 도시 계획]
Since at least the late nineteenth century and the rise of industrial cities, the history of urbanism and urban planning has been a history of expertise ― political, administrative, and technocratic. Cities came to be seen as solutions to demands for wealth, health, safety, opportunity, and personal development, as society grew more economically, socially, and politically complex. Cities also came to be seen as posing new problems, often caused by their successes in meeting earlier social demands. Both fueled by and fueling that problem/solution framework, the Progressive political movement of the early twentieth century relied heavily on trained and trusted experts, especially economists and other social scientists. Those experts were often educated in newly formed occupational disciplines and professional schools. Degrees in hand, they were primed to lead both governments and businesses away from the era of laissez-faire and toward better outcomes for themselves and for workers and citizens. That meant safer food; safer water; better working conditions; safer and less expensive automobiles; expanded opportunities for education, leisure, and personal fulfillment; and so on.
[16강- Gateway:승자 독식의 경쟁으로 잘못 이해되는 과학]
Science is sometimes described as a winner-take-all contest, meaning that there are no rewards for being second or third. This is an extreme view of the nature of scientific contests. Even those who describe scientific contests in such a way note that it is a somewhat inaccurate description, given that replication and verification have social value and are common in science. It is also inaccurate to the extent that it suggests that only a handful of contests exist. Yes, some contests are seen as world class, such as identification of the Higgs particle or the development of high temperature superconductors. But many other contests have multiple parts, and the number of such contests may be increasing. By way of example, for many years it was thought that there would be "one" cure for cancer, but it is now realized that cancer takes multiple forms and that multiple approaches are needed to provide a cure. There won't be one winner ― there will be many.
[16강- 01번:기자의 정보 습득]
As soon as a reporter is assigned to a specialized beat, he or she should read several basic books on that subject to become familiar in a general way with how the beat works. If a governmental area is involved ─ for example, a state legislature or a court system ─ a reporter should not go on a first assignment without knowing how that particular unit operates. Libraries contain such books, although it is better for reporters to buy their own copies for future reference. No medical reporter can work successfully without a good medical dictionary, for example. Nor should a business reporter be without a basic economics text. City directories and telephone books from all cities in a reporter's area of coverage are valuable tools, as are internal directories of the organizations he or she will encounter on the beat. Having such numbers ─ which are often impossible to obtain officially ― will enable a reporter to bypass obstacles and reach potential sources quickly.
[16강- 02번:문화적 다양성과 인간의 선천적 능력]
Cultural and behavioral diversity can result from humans' innate ability to flexibly respond to their environments, to engage in social learning, and to make culture (an ability which is itself a part of the social suite). The diversity might conceal an underlying universality that, paradoxically, might relate more to our genes than to cultural exigencies. Evolutionary psychologists John Tooby and Leda Cosmides provide a fanciful illustration of this idea. They suggest a thought experiment in which aliens replace humans with jukeboxes, each of which has a repertoire of thousands of songs and the ability to play a particular song according to where and when it is. We would then observe that jukeboxes in different parts of the world played different songs at different times, songs that were similar to those on the jukeboxes near them. But none of this intergroup variation and intragroup commonality would have anything to do with the workings of culture. This is a way of illustrating that humans might have an inborn ability to respond flexibly ― but also predictably ─ to their environment.
[16강- 03번:오늘날 리더의 자질]
When companies select leaders, two of the first questions they ask are, "Has he done anything like this before?" "What is his track record?" We assume that if that person has done it before (and done it well), he can do it again. Experience is still important for leaders, and there are times when it is the most effective predictor of future success. The problem, however, is that because of constantly improving technology, processes, and best practices in a world that is constantly changing and where success is being continually redefined, experience can be a handicap. Today, leaders must discipline themselves to look at problems and opportunities with a fresh eye. This is difficult because people naturally want to repeat an approach that worked in a similar situation. It is a challenge to consider an alternative to what brought you success in the past or to your current position in the present.
[16강- 04번:후각의 힘]
Smell is not just a sense that determines taste; it is also a powerful force that stimulates desire and may even overwhelm the other senses. In the past decade, aromatherapy has emerged as an alternative healing practice, as well as a new product to be advertised to consumers. Some stores spread scents of freshly baked bread or apple pie to encourage shoppers to stay longer and buy more. Smells are also important for distinguishing between edible and inedible foods. Herbal medicine stores frequently have a wide variety of pungent odors. The preparation of herbal medicines may include cooking plants into liquid form or distilling essences with alcohol, which often creates an odor. Yet biomedical pills and tablets are prepared in ways that deemphasize smells considered to be more palatable. The absence of smells further distances medicine from food.
[16강- 05번:부모와 또래 집단의 차이]
The divergence between parental and peer values does not necessarily lead to a hostile confrontation between parents and teenagers. In fact, most youngsters are just as friendly with parents as with peers. They simply engage in different types of activities ― work and task activities with parents, play and recreation with peers. Concerning financial, educational, career, and other serious matters, such as what to spend money on and what occupation to choose, youths are inclined to seek advice from parents. When it comes to social activities, such as whom to date and what clubs to join, they are more likely to discuss them with peers. This reflects the great importance placed by the peer group on other-directed behavior, looking to others for approval and support as opposed to reliance on personal beliefs and traditional values. Peer groups, in effect, demand conformity at the expense of independence and individuality.
[16강- 06번:고통스러운 자극의 재현]
One important point related to the possibility of reproducing believable tactile sensations in virtual or machine-mediated environments lies in the role of "pain." Certainly, a number of real interactions can never be entirely believable without the presence of painful stimulation. However, one might wonder whether reproducing such kinds of stimulation would ever be of any use within virtual or mediated interactions. Shouldn't a "virtual" world be, in some sense, "better" without pain? Even if not immediately intuitive, there are a (admittedly small) number of situations in which the ability to deliver painful stimulation comes in handy within mediated environments. In fact, numerous attempts have been made over the course of the last few years to reproduce these aspects of our perception as well. This may occur in video games to increase the realism of the simulation or even more importantly in training programs for soldiers where pain is an occupational hazard and will need to be dealt with.
[17강- Gateway:다양한 과학 분야에서 성과를 낼 수 있는 탐구 방법]
Even those with average talent can produce notable work in the various sciences, so long as they do not try to embrace all of them at once. Instead, they should concentrate attention on one subject after another (that is, in different periods of time), although later work will weaken earlier attainments in the other spheres. This amounts to saying that the brain adapts to universal science in time but not in space. In fact, even those with great abilities proceed in this way. Thus, when we are astonished by someone with publications in different scientific fields, realize that each topic was explored during a specific period of time. Knowledge gained earlier certainly will not have disappeared from the mind of the author, but it will have become simplified by condensing into formulas or greatly abbreviated symbols. Thus, sufficient space remains for the perception and learning of new images on the cerebral blackboard. [요약문] Exploring one scientific subject after another enables remarkable work across the sciences, as the previously gained knowledge is retained in simplified forms within the brain, which leaves room for new learning.
[17강- 01번:일상 제품도 가질 수 있는 상징적 의미]
Consider a bar of soap, the kind you keep by the bathroom sink to wash your hands and face. How much meaning could such an innocuous object contain? While it may be tempting to answer "not much," or even "none," in fact, even soap can embody a rich set of symbols. Think about a particular brand of soap. By itself, that soap cleans like any other soap. But through some clever marketing, packaging, and advertising, the brand immerses its soap in a complex set of messages about the environment, personal empowerment, and progressive politics. The brand's website even says, "We are committed to animal protection, environmental protection and respect for human rights." These meanings allow the brand's customers to do more with the soap than just clean their faces: By using these products, they can make a statement about what kind of person they are and what kind of politics they embrace. [요약문] An ordinary, everyday product can take on a symbolic meaning through clever marketing, packaging, and advertising; by using it, consumers can express their personal and political identity.
[17강- 02번:인간에게 유일한 가리키기]
Comparative psychology finds that pointing (in its full-blown form) is unique to our species. Few nonhuman species seem able to comprehend pointing (notably, domestic dogs can follow pointing, while our closest relatives among the great apes cannot), and there is little evidence of pointing occurring spontaneously between members of any species other than our own. Apparently only humans have the social-cognitive infrastructure needed to support the kind of cooperative and prosocial motivations that pointing gestures presuppose. This suggests a new place to look for the foundations of human language. While research on language in cognitive science has long focused on its logical structure, the news about pointing suggests an alternative: that the essence of language is found in our capacity for the communion of minds through shared intentionality. At the center of it is the deceptively simple act of pointing, an act that must be mastered before language can be learned at all. [요약문] Pointing, which indicates cooperative and prosocial motivations, is exclusive to humans, and since the nature of language requires shared intentionality, mastery of pointing must precede language learning.
[17강- 03번:협력 과업에 대한 어린 침팬지와 인간의 차이]
We come into the world ready to start relationships and, as we gain control of our body, we're keen to take part in games and tasks that involve working with others. In this way, we're so different from young chimps. Experiments have shown chimps can understand collaborative tasks perfectly well, but they only bother to take part if they can see how it will result in their getting a piece of fruit or some other reward. Humans, by contrast, often work together just for the joy of it. Experiments have shown that working with others affects children's behavior. Afterward, they're more generous in sharing any treats the experimenters give them ― as if working with others has put them in a better mood. It seems unlikely that children's greater willingness to share is simply the result of learning that they should pay people for working with them, but the way we feel about everything is strongly influenced by the experiences that shaped the development of our brain. Our childhood observations of others don't just help us learn how to behave; they help us understand how we're supposed to feel. [요약문] While young chimps collaborate solely for their own benefit, humans derive pleasure from working with others, and through such experiences, they feel better and become more charitable.
[17강- 04번:합리적 행위 이론]
The theory of reasoned action maintains that a person's decision to engage in a purposeful activity depends on several factors, of which some are situational and some are mediated by personal dispositions or characteristics. At the core of the theory is the idea that when people engage in a given behavior it is because they formed an intention to do so and have reasons for their decision to actualize their intentions. Because of this, much of our behavior can be characterized as "reasoned action." Fishbein and Ajzen suggested that behavioral intentions are controlled by two factors: attitude toward an act and the normative component. Attitude toward an act is influenced by the beliefs that people have about the consequences of performing an act. The normative component is controlled by our beliefs about what valued others (i.e., people important in our lives) expect us to do. For some behaviors we rely more on our attitude toward an act, whereas for other behaviors we may rely more on the normative component for guidance on how to behave. [요약문] The theory of reasoned action explains that our behaviors result from the rational decisions to realize our pre-formed behavioral intentions, which are influenced by beliefs about the outcomes of the behaviors and the expectations of valued others.
[18강- Gateway:과학자의 미디어 접촉]
One way to avoid contributing to overhyping a story would be to say nothing. However, that is not a realistic option for scientists who feel a strong sense of responsibility to inform the public and policymakers and/or to offer suggestions. Speaking with members of the media has advantages in getting a message out and perhaps receiving favorable recognition, but it runs the risk of misinterpretations, the need for repeated clarifications, and entanglement in never-ending controversy. Hence, the decision of whether to speak with the media tends to be highly individualized. Decades ago, it was unusual for Earth scientists to have results that were of interest to the media, and consequently few media contacts were expected or encouraged. In the 1970s, the few scientists who spoke frequently with the media were often criticized by their fellow scientists for having done so. The situation now is quite different, as many scientists feel a responsibility to speak out because of the importance of global warming and related issues, and many reporters share these feelings. In addition, many scientists are finding that they enjoy the media attention and the public recognition that comes with it. At the same time, other scientists continue to resist speaking with reporters, thereby preserving more time for their science and avoiding the risk of being misquoted and the other unpleasantries associated with media coverage.
[18강- 01~02번:세상에 대한 우리의 인식]
We trust our common sense largely because we are prone to naive realism: the belief that we see the world precisely as it is. We assume that 'seeing is believing' and trust our intuitive perceptions of the world and ourselves. In daily life, naive realism often serves us well. If you are driving down a one-lane road and see a tractor-trailer moving uncontrollably towards you at 120 kilometres per hour, it is a wise idea to get out of the way. Much of the time, we should trust our perceptions. Yet appearances can sometimes be deceptive. The Earth seems flat. The sun seems to revolve around the Earth. Yet in both cases, our intuitions are wrong. Sometimes, what appears to be obvious can mislead us when it comes to evaluating ourselves and others. Our common sense tells us that our memories accurately capture virtually everything we have seen, although scientific research demonstrates otherwise. Our common sense also assures us that people who do not share our political views are biased, but that we are objective. Yet psychological research demonstrates that we are all susceptible to evaluating political issues in a biased fashion. So our tendencies to believe appearances can lead us to draw erroneous conclusions about human nature. In many cases, 'believing is seeing' rather than the reverse: our beliefs shape our perceptions of the world.
[18강- 03~04번:감사가 갖는 긍정적 감정과 부정적 감정]
Some people claim that gratitude is just about thinking nice thoughts and expecting good things ─ and ignores the negativity, pain, and suffering in life. Well, they're wrong. Consider our definition of gratitude, as a specific way of thinking about receiving a benefit and giving credit to others besides yourself for that benefit. In fact, gratitude can be very difficult, because it requires that you recognize your dependence on others, and that's not always positive. You have to humble yourself, in the sense that you have to become a good receiver of others' support and generosity. That can be very hard ─ most people are better givers than receivers. What's more, feelings of gratitude can sometimes stir up related feelings of indebtedness and obligation, which doesn't sound like positive thinking at all: If I am grateful for something you provided to me, I have to take care of that thing ─ I might even have to reciprocate at some appropriate time in the future. That type of indebtedness or obligation can be perceived very negatively ─ it can cause people real discomfort, as Jill Suttie explores in her essay "How to Say Thanks Without Feeling Indebted." The data bear this out. When people are grateful, they aren't necessarily free of negative emotions ─ we don't find that they necessarily have less anxiety or less tension or less unhappiness. Practicing gratitude magnifies positive feelings more than it reduces negative feelings. If gratitude were just positive thinking, or a form of denial, you'd experience no negative thoughts or feelings when you're keeping a gratitude journal, for instance. But, in fact, people do.
[18강- 05~06번:문화와 학습의 산물인 행동 규범]
In all social systems, it is true that people's behavior is influenced by social rules and they are extraordinarily adaptable. One natural experiment involving baboons is instructive. A study in 2004 examined how a troop of baboons dominated by large and aggressive males changed after all those dominant males caught a disease and died. With only smaller, gentler males remaining, the culture of that troop underwent a dramatic shift, moving from a social structure characterized by widespread bullying and fighting to one with much more peaceful grooming. Conflict was still there, of course, but it tended to be resolved with peaceful methods, and the fighting that did happen was more between equally matched baboons, instead of a big one picking on a small one. Remarkably, the culture of that troop persisted even after all those original males had died off and were replaced by others coming in from outside. The new males were acculturated to the group norms, and learned to behave less aggressively. Obviously, humans are not baboons. But it seems highly possible that this is basically similar to why different human societies can have much different behavioral norms ― consider premodern tribes who worshiped their ancestors and shared food in common, medieval peasants who accepted the divine right of kings and performed free labor for feudal lords, and people today who believe in democracy and corporate employment contracts. Human societies have much more complexity and choice than baboon societies, but the point is that behavioral norms are to a great degree the product of culture and learning, not the other way around.
[18강- 07~08번:소프트웨어 오작동의 원인]
Not surprisingly, usage of unsafely designed and insecurely implemented software presents some risks. After distributed software reaches user sites, installation and administration of system and application software, when improperly performed, may adversely affect performance and proper functioning of such software. Due to the complexity as well as due to inadequate documentation of these systems, users hardly understand effects of their attempts to "properly" use such systems. Consequently, users apply "trial and error" methods in learning to work with new features, rather than trying methodologically to understand which functions may have which effects, and which precautions should be taken to avoid unwished side-effects. This somewhat "explorative" way to use systems rather often leads to a risky attitude with potentially harmful effects, e.g. by clicking on unknown attachments without due care. Software manufacturers often argue that failure of software is mainly caused by improper actions of users. But in many ― if not most ― cases, the human-computer interface (e.g. the display of functions and operations on the screen, or the handling of input devices such as mouse and keyboard) is inadequately designed and users are not properly supported by help functions (which when existing in many cases are so complex that users are further misled). While users are primarily interested in doing their work, one must admit that they rather often tend to forget about any precaution and even sometimes bypass security measures when thinking that their work performance is reduced.
[19강- Gateway:인생의 어려움으로부터의 회복]
Emma and Clara stood side by side on the beach road, with their eyes fixed on the boundless ocean. The breathtaking scene that surrounded them was beyond description. Just after sunrise, they finished their preparations for the bicycle ride along the beach road. Emma turned to Clara with a question, "Do you think this will be your favorite ride ever?" Clara's face lit up with a bright smile as she nodded. "Definitely! I can't wait to ride while watching those beautiful waves!" Emma and Clara jumped on their bikes and started to pedal toward the white cliff where the beach road ended. Speeding up and enjoying the wide blue sea, Emma couldn't hide her excitement and exclaimed, "Clara, the view is amazing!" Clara's silence, however, seemed to say that she was lost in her thoughts. Emma understood the meaning of her silence. Watching Clara riding beside her, Emma thought about Clara's past tragedy, which she now seemed to have overcome. Clara used to be a talented swimmer, but she had to give up her dream of becoming an Olympic medalist in swimming because of shoulder injuries. Yet she responded to the hardship in a constructive way. After years of hard training, she made an incredible recovery and found a new passion for bike riding. Emma saw how the painful past made her maturer and how it made her stronger in the end. One hour later, Clara, riding ahead of Emma, turned back and shouted, "Look at the white cliff!" When they reached their destination, Emma and Clara stopped their bikes. Emma approached Clara, saying "Bicycle riding is unlike swimming, isn't it?" Clara answered with a smile, "Quite similar, actually. Just like swimming, riding makes me feel truly alive." She added, "It shows me what it means to live while facing life's tough challenges." Emma nodded in agreement and suggested, "Your first beach bike ride was a great success. How about coming back next summer?" Clara replied with delight, "With you, absolutely!"
[19강- 01~03번:인기 팟캐스트를 탄생시킨Monica Padman]
Monica Padman left college in 2009 with two degrees in hand ― one in theater and one in public relations. She moved to Hollywood to follow her dream of becoming an actor and comedian. Like most striving actors, she worked a variety of part-time jobs in between auditions and small roles. Padman scored a small part on Showtime's House of Lies, where she played the on-screen assistant to the actress Kristen Bell. They became friendly, and when Padman realized Bell had a young daughter, she mentioned that she did some babysitting. Bell and her husband, the actor Dax Shepard, took her up on the offer. As she saw the challenges Bell faced juggling multiple acting and producing projects, she offered to help her with scheduling. Though it might have been tempting for the aspiring actress to ask the Hollywood A-lister to help her get on-screen roles, Padman worked where she was needed ― ironically, as Bell's off-screen assistant. When Bell and Shepard asked her to work for them full-time, Padman was understandably reluctant ― how would she find time to audition? The job could be a detour. But Padman decided to take it. Over time, she became a friend and creative partner to Bell. She worked energetically wherever she saw a need. "Everything she does is at 110 percent," Bell said of Padman. Before long, Padman had become so essential that Bell wondered aloud, "How did I do any of this without her?" While working for her family, Padman spent many hours sitting on the terrace debating with Bell's husband. Their arguments were as fun as they were fierce, so when Bell suggested they develop their banter into a podcast, Padman was up for that too. Thus was born Armchair Expert. The podcast became 2018's most downloaded new podcast and has continued to grow in popularity. Padman could have pursued a direct path to her passion. Instead, she worked wholeheartedly where she could be most useful. By working passionately in Bell's house, she found a bigger opportunity and, perhaps, her true purpose.
[19강- 04~06번:바이올린 연주를 통한 자원봉사]
An old and weak soldier was playing his violin one evening on the Prater, in Vienna. His faithful dog was holding his hat, in which passers-by dropped a few coppers as they came along. However, on the evening in question nobody stopped to put a small coin into the old soldier's hat. Everyone went straight on, and the joy of the crowd added to the sorrow in the old soldier's heart, which showed itself in his withered face. However, all at once, a well-dressed gentleman came up to where the old solider stood, listened to his playing for a few minutes, and gazed compassionately upon him. Before long, the old solder's tired hand had no longer strength to grasp his bow. His limbs refused to carry him farther. He seated himself on a stone, rested his head on his hands, and began to weep silently. At that instant the gentleman approached, offered the old soldier a piece of gold, and said: "Lend me your violin a little while." Then, having carefully tuned his violin, the gentleman said: "You take the money and I'll play." He did play! All the passers-by stopped to listen ― struck with the distinguished air of the musician and fascinated by his marvelous genius. Every moment the circle became larger and larger. Not copper alone, but silver ― and even gold ― was dropped into the old soldier's hat. The dog began to growl, for it was becoming too heavy for him to hold. At an invitation from the audience, the old soldier emptied its contents into his bag, and they filled it again. After a national melody, in which everyone present joined, with uncovered heads, the violinist placed the instrument upon the poor soldier's knees, and, without waiting to be thanked, disappeared. "Who is it?" was asked on all sides. "It is Armand Boucher, the famous violin player," replied someone in the crowd. "He has been turning his art to account in the service of charity. Let us follow his example." And the speaker sent round his hat also, made a new collection, and gave the proceeds to the old solider, crying, "Long live Boucher!" Deeply affected, the old solider thanked everyone around him.
[19강- 07~09번:가족이 된Say Say]
One day when I was little, my father told me the story of how Say Say had come to be with us. My father was talking to my mother about his work in the Kler Lwee Htu district, from where he had just returned. It was far distant from us, and much closer to the front line where the Burmese military were attacking our villages. The Burmese regime had a notorious policy called the 'Four Cuts', which was designed to crush the Karen. It was brutally simple: it would cut off all supplies, information, recruits and food to the Karen resistance. The Four Cuts policy was hurting people terribly, my father explained. As a small child I couldn't understand everything he told us. I knew my people were starving to death, but I was scared, and I didn't want to think about it. I could see that my father was suffering, but I tried to close my mind to that. We were all closer to our mother at this time, for the simple reason that she was around. I'd grow close to my father when he was with us, but hurt, and distant, when he left. The Four Cuts policy had driven families to ever more desperate measures. One day a man who worked for the resistance had approached my father. Over their time spent working together they had grown to like and respect each other. He told my father that he had seven children, and that he wanted one at least to get a proper education. But the Four Cuts policy had destroyed all the schools in the area. He asked my father if he could take one of his older sons, Say Say, and give him an education in our home village. My mother and father had only one child at this time ― my older sister, Bwa Bwa ― and my father felt a deep sympathy for his friend. He agreed to take Say Say as one of his own children, and so Say Say became my parents' adopted son. Once a year Say Say's father would try to visit, if he could afford the time to make the long journey. Whenever he did, he was so happy and proud to see how well his son was doing in his studies at school.
[19강- 10~12번: Raymond의 내재적 동기 부여와 강화 이론]
Long ago in New Orleans, there was an old gentleman named Raymond, who would sit on his porch every day. Raymond enjoyed his time outdoors, communing with nature and the neighbors and soaking up sunshine. Every day at the same time a kid would walk down his street on his way home from school. Raymond enjoyed talking to the local kid and the kid also loved talking with him. They kept an eye out for each other. However, this kid had developed a bad habit. On his way down the street every day, he would beat on the metal trash cans with sticks. Raymond found this very annoying and tried to ask the kid to stop, but he didn't want to listen to the old man on the porch. Raymond decided to put the concepts of intrinsic motivation and reinforcement theory to work. The next time the kid came down the street he complimented him on the sound he made and said he would pay him a dollar a day if he promised to do it every day. The kid accepted and every day for the following week the kid banged on cans and Raymond paid him a dollar. The next week Raymond told the kid that he was short on money (even though that wasn't really true) and that he could only pay him fifty cents a day for banging on cans. The kid was not happy about this new arrangement, but agreed anyway and got his fifty cents each day after banging cans. The week after that Raymond told the kid that money was even tighter and that he could only pay him twenty-five cents per day. Again, the kid was not happy about this new arrangement, but agreed anyway and banged cans and got his twenty-five cents each day. After a week of paying the kid twenty-five cents a day, Raymond approached the kid and told him he couldn't pay him anymore but he still wanted him to continue to bang cans. This time the kid did not agree. He was angry about not getting paid and refused to bang on cans anymore. Raymond continues to sit on his porch every day, enjoying nature, his neighbors, and soaking up the sun.
[20강- Gateway:프랑스 영화감독Jean Renoir]
Jean Renoir (1894-1979), a French film director, was born in Paris, France. He was the son of the famous painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir. He and the rest of the Renoir family were the models of many of his father's paintings. At the outbreak of World War I, Jean Renoir was serving in the French army but was wounded in the leg. In 1937, he made La Grande Illusion, one of his better-known films. It was enormously successful but was not allowed to show in Germany. During World War II, when the Nazis invaded France in 1940, he went to Hollywood in the United States and continued his career there. He was awarded numerous honors and awards throughout his career, including the Academy Honorary Award in 1975 for his lifetime achievements in the film industry. Overall, Jean Renoir's influence as a film-maker and artist endures.
[20강- 01번:프랑스의 극작가이자 영화 제작자Marcel Pagnol]
Marcel Pagnol was born in Aubagne in 1895, and died in 1974. The son of a primary school teacher, whom he described so vividly in his Souvenirs d'enfance (childhood memories), this southern Frenchman began his professional life as an English teacher. However, he quickly earned a reputation for his plays in the 1920s: the extraordinary success of Topaze in 1927 and Marius in 1928 established him as a playwright. Marcel Pagnol had long been interested in the cinema, but had to wait for the development of talking picture techniques to use his full vigor as a dialogue writer. His first few films were adaptations of his theatrical works, for example the highly acclaimed trilogy Marius, Fanny and Cesar. The public success was enormous at both national and international levels. This persuaded Marcel Pagnol to devote himself exclusively to the cinema. For his second film he set up his own production company, La societe des films Marcel Pagnol. He was certain that the dramatist of the past would be the film-maker of the future, a thesis which he controversially developed in a short-lived critical review entitled Les cahiers du film.
[20강- 02번:첼리스트Yo-Yo Ma]
When he was a Harvard student, world-famous cellist Yo-Yo Ma played often at concerts in and around Boston. He became very popular, and one day when one of his concerts was sold out, he gave a free concert for those who were unable to obtain tickets ― he sat in the theater lobby and played Bach cello suites. Later in his career, when he was an international success, he still would often give more than required. For example, many guest cello soloists play in the first half of a concert, then they are finished for the night. However, Mr. Ma would sometimes play as part of the orchestra in the second half of the concert ─ doing this with the Philadelphia Orchestra was especially enjoyable for him. He says, "It is an honor to play the back stands of the Philadelphia Orchestra. It's incredible the way those players listen, the knowledge they have. I admire it so much. And I feel the thrill of being part of something that's greater than the sum of its parts ― being accepted as part of the team."
[20강- 03번: Hugo de Vries와Darwin의 만남]
In the summer of 1878, a thirty-year-old Dutch botanist named Hugo de Vries traveled to England to see Darwin. It was more of a spiritual journey than a scientific visit. Darwin was vacationing at his sister's estate in Dorking, but de Vries tracked him down and traveled out to meet him. Thin, intense, and excitable, with a beard that rivaled Darwin's, de Vries already looked like a younger version of his idol. He also had Darwin's persistence. The meeting must have been exhausting, for it lasted only two hours, and Darwin had to excuse himself to take a break. But de Vries left England transformed. With no more than a brief conversation, Darwin had inserted a sluice into de Vries's racing mind, completely redirecting it forever. Back in Amsterdam, de Vries suddenly terminated his prior work on the movement of tendrils in plants and threw himself into solving the mystery of heredity.
[21강- Gateway:여가의 사유화]
In the post-World War II years after 1945, unparalleled economic growth fueled a building boom and a massive migration from the central cities to the new suburban areas. The suburbs were far more dependent on the automobile, signaling the shift from primary dependence on public transportation to private cars. Soon this led to the construction of better highways and freeways and the decline and even loss of public transportation. With all of these changes came a privatization of leisure. As more people owned their own homes, with more space inside and lovely yards outside, their recreation and leisure time was increasingly centered around the home or, at most, the neighborhood. One major activity of this home-based leisure was watching television. No longer did one have to ride the trolly to the theater to watch a movie; similar entertainment was available for free and more conveniently from television.
[21강- 01번:도덕적 판단의 상대성]
It is uncontroversially true that people in different societies have different customs and different ideas about right and wrong. There is no world consensus on which actions are right and wrong, even though there is a considerable overlap between views on this. If we consider how much moral views have changed both from place to place and from age to age it can be tempting to think that there are no absolute moral facts, but rather that morality is always relative to the society in which you have been brought up. On such a view, since slavery was morally acceptable to most Ancient Greeks but is not to most Europeans today, slavery was right for the Ancient Greeks but would be wrong for today's Europeans. This view, known as moral relativism, makes morality simply a description of the values held by a particular society at a particular time. This is a meta-ethical view about the nature of moral judgements. Moral judgements can only be judged true or false relative to a particular society. There are no absolute moral judgements: they are all relative.
[21강- 02번:멕시코의 지형과 지역적 단절]
If the United States has one of the easiest geographies to develop, Mexico has one of the most difficult. The entirety of Mexico is in essence the southern extension of the Rocky Mountains, which is a kind way of saying that America's worst lands are strikingly similar to Mexico's best lands. As one would expect from a territory that is mountain-dominated, there are no navigable rivers and no large cohesive pieces of fertile land like the American Southeast or the Columbia valley, much less the Midwest. Each mountain valley is a sort of fastness where a small handful of oligarchs control local economic and political life. Mexico shouldn't be thought of as a unified state, but instead as a collage of dozens of little Mexicos where local power brokers constantly align with and against each other (and a national government seeking ─ often in vain ─ to stitch together something more cohesive). In its regional disconnectedness, Mexico is a textbook case that countries with the greatest need for capital-intensive infrastructure are typically the countries with the lowest ability to generate the capital necessary to build that infrastructure.
[21강- 03번:바닷물을 마시는 것의 위험성]
When Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote the words, "Water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink" in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner in 1798, the dangers of drinking seawater had been known for thousands of years. Seawater does indeed make men mad. Historical evidence indicates the ancient Egyptians knew seawater was not potable, but the earliest realization that it was unsafe to drink has been lost to antiquity. In pre-Columbian times, the greatest fear of venturing too far from land on the ocean was not falling off the surface of the Earth but lack of fresh drinking water. From a human perspective, the oceans, which cover 70% of Earth's surface, are still the most extensive and unique desert wildernesses on the planet. Saltwater constitutes 97% of Earth's water, and of the 3% that is fresh, two-thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice. Thus, a mere 1 % of all the water on the planet (in lakes and rivers, groundwater, and the atmosphere) is fresh and can be used by terrestrial plants and animals.
[22강- Gateway:배달용 운송 수단으로서의 자전거]
Urban delivery vehicles can be adapted to better suit the density of urban distribution, which often involves smaller vehicles such as vans, including bicycles. The latter have the potential to become a preferred 'last-mile' vehicle, particularly in high-density and congested areas. In locations where bicycle use is high, such as the Netherlands, delivery bicycles are also used to carry personal cargo (e.g. groceries). Due to their low acquisition and maintenance costs, cargo bicycles convey much potential in developed and developing countries alike, such as the becak (a three-wheeled bicycle) in Indonesia. Services using electrically assisted delivery tricycles have been successfully implemented in France and are gradually being adopted across Europe for services as varied as parcel and catering deliveries. Using bicycles as cargo vehicles is particularly encouraged when combined with policies that restrict motor vehicle access to specific areas of a city, such as downtown or commercial districts, or with the extension of dedicated bike lanes.
[22강- 01번:거주지 결정 시 선호되는 항목]
Shifting demographics, household structures, lifestyle preferences, and consumer values suggest a different built environment and urban fabric 30 years ahead compared with 30 years ago. More and more Americans, Australians, and Europeans are choosing to live in settings where they are less dependent on their cars because reducing air pollution and energy use matters to them. A 2011 survey of more than two thousand adult Americans found seven times more people said the neighborhood where a house is located is a bigger consideration in deciding where to live than the size of the house. Walking to restaurants, businesses, schools, and other amenities was the most appealing neighborhood feature for many respondents. To many 20- and 30-somethings, walkable communities are equated with a downsized environmental footprint and energy efficiency, with the added benefit of burning calories during everyday activities. If green buildings and solar panels dot the landscape and rooftops, all the better. Notes one economist with the Urban Land Institute, "Energy efficiency is becoming the new granite countertops; it's a necessary feature to sell the property."
[22강- 02번:환경 쇠퇴의 주요 원인으로서의 천연자원 소비]
In recent years, there has been an increasing tendency of economists, scientists, and politicians to shift the focus from population growth to consumption as the more important underlying driver of biodiversity loss. For many, the emphasis on consumption avoids politically charged topics, such as population control, which most people oppose on ethical or moral grounds, and because it is associated with divisive topics such as xenophobia, racism, and eugenics. Others highlight that it is not the number of people per se, but how natural resources are consumed that is the main cause of environmental decline. Indeed, rich people and rich countries have a disproportionate impact on the natural environment because they consume a disproportionately large share of the world's natural resources. To use one example, the USA accommodates only 5% of the world's human population but uses 25% of the world's harvested natural resources each year. In fact, decorative Christmas lights in the USA alone use more energy than the annual energy usage of the entirety of Ethiopia or Tanzania. And yet, the average USA citizen uses less than half of the energy that an average citizen of Qatar uses, Qatar being a small but wealthy Middle Eastern country.
[22강- 03번:환경 문제에 대한 인식을 높이는 영화]
Movies featuring wonderful natural landscapes and charismatic wildlife often increase the desire of moviegoers to visit natural areas where they can see these landscapes and animals first-hand. But they can also raise awareness of environmental issues in new audiences. While many documentaries are created with this purpose in mind, such benefits can also extend to blockbuster movies meant for broader audiences. For example, Disney's Happy Feet highlighted the threat of overfishing and plastic pollution to penguins; The Jungle Book exposed audiences to the endangered pangolins. Such exposure can even lead to environmentally conscious behavioural changes. For example, moviegoers were willing to donate 50% more money to climate mitigation after watching the apocalyptic movie The Day After Tomorrow . Perhaps, in part, due to the influence of environmentally-orientated movies, an increasing number of movie stars (and other celebrities) have started using their stardom as a platform from where they promote biodiversity conservation efforts in Africa.
[23강- Gateway:식물의 적응 반응 조정]
Plants show finely tuned adaptive responses when nutrients are limiting. Gardeners may recognize yellow leaves as a sign of poor nutrition and the need for fertilizer. But if a plant does not have a caretaker to provide supplemental minerals, it can proliferate or lengthen its roots and develop root hairs to allow foraging in more distant soil patches. Plants can also use their memory to respond to histories of temporal or spatial variation in nutrient or resource availability. Research in this area has shown that plants are constantly aware of their position in the environment, in terms of both space and time. Plants that have experienced variable nutrient availability in the past tend to exhibit risk-taking behaviors, such as spending energy on root lengthening instead of leaf production. In contrast, plants with a history of nutrient abundance are risk averse and save energy. At all developmental stages, plants respond to environmental changes or unevenness so as to be able to use their energy for growth, survival, and reproduction, while limiting damage and nonproductive uses of their valuable energy.
[23강- 01번:개미의 겉모습과 생활 방식]
Many aspects of an ant's appearance have likely evolved to meet a specific lifestyle requirement, although the extent to which this is true has not been fully explored for all aspects of its body structure. Adaptations could be due to environment, available food, or predators. Long legs and large eyes are commonly seen in ground-foraging ants that need to move quickly to avoid predators in open ground or be the first to acquire a food resource. In contrast, ants that forage and nest in leaf litter have shorter legs and antennae, alongside small eyes. This makes sense in the dark environment of leaf litter where moving through small spaces is easier with a compact body plan. Based on the unique combination of body size measurements, scientists can predict where an ant nests and forages or even what kind of food it eats. Predators have longer, flatter mandibles, while omnivores ─ those eating a diverse range of foods ─ have shorter, curved mandibles.
[23강- 02번:대왕 문어]
The largest species of octopus in the world, the giant Pacific octopus, usually grows to about 3 m in length and weighs up to 272 kg. It lives on the rim of the North Pacific Ocean, where it crawls about on the bottom, using its long, sucker-covered arms. It seeks out rocky dens on the seabed; youngsters will often dig holes under rocks in sand. Here, the octopus can take refuge from predators ─ seals, sharks, and other large fishes ─ too big to slip through the den mouth. Foraging mainly at night, this giant octopus looks especially for crabs and lobsters, but also takes shrimp and shellfish, smaller octopuses, and fishes. Often it will return to its den to feed, depositing empty shells and other inedible fragments of prey in piles at the entrance. Like its relatives, this octopus mostly lives alone, except for a brief period when adults come together for mating. The female lays her eggs in a den, and will tend them until her young emerge. She will not feed in all this time ─ and will die soon after her young emerge.
[23강- 03번:볼링공의 각도 변화]
However skilled you may be at bowling, there will always be minute changes in the angle at which you release the ball that will be magnified as the ball travels the length of the lane. As it strikes, the first skittle falls back either slightly to the right or the left, and the ball is deflected slightly in the other direction. From then on, within a fraction of a second, skittles start falling in different directions, sometimes hitting others as they fall. The differences in the final arrangement of skittles each time are difficult to predict from the slight variation of angle as the ball leaves the bowler's hand. Even those who can achieve strike after strike actually achieve a different strike every time, for the skittles will never fall in exactly the same way twice.
[24강- Gateway: 2017년에 관광한 유럽 연합28개국 인구의 점유율]
The above graph shows the share of the EU-28 population participating in tourism in 2017 by age group and destination category. The share of people in the No Trips category was over 30% in each of the five age groups. The percentage of people in the Outbound Trips Only category was higher in the 25-34 age group than in the 35-44 age group. In the 35-44 age group, the percentage of people in the Domestic Trips Only category was 34.2%. The percentage of people in the Domestic & Outbound Trips category was lower in the 45-54 age group than in the 55-64 age group. In the 65 or over age group, the percentage of people in the No Trips category was more than 50%.
[24강- 01번:각성의 원천인 관중]
Spectators are seen as a source of drive arousal. This heightened state of arousal is presumed to facilitate the performance of well-learned or simple skills. However, if a skill is not well-learned or complex, the increase in arousal will interfere with its performance. The underlying notion is that an increase in drive arousal favors the emission of the performer's dominant responses. In the case of a skilled performer, her dominant responses are presumed to be largely "correct" ones. Her performance stands to be improved with an audience present. In a case where the performer is still struggling to master a skill, incorrect responses are present in abundance and are thereby presumed to be dominant responses. As a consequence, onlookers can only worsen the performance of a beginner. Hence, the performer's level of skill and the complexity of the skill itself will determine whether an audience helps or hinders a performance.
[24강- 02번:운동에 필요한 단백질의 양]
Athletes do require more protein (and all nutrients) than sedentary people, but there is no evidence that they require a higher percentage of protein compared to other macronutrients in their diet to perform more optimally. To put it another way, a diet with 10 percent protein is sufficient for most people, athlete and nonathlete alike. If an average adult female eats 2,000 calories, 10 percent is 200 calories from protein. If an average female athlete eats 3,000 calories, 10 percent is 300 calories from protein ― that's a 50 percent increase in protein achieved by simply eating more of the same foods. So when you exercise, you don't need to change the composition of the food (i.e., consuming foods with higher concentrations of protein or consuming protein powders). You just need to eat more of the same foods. The increased athletic activity will work up your hunger drive. In response, you will consume more protein as well as nutrients of all types. This works well since physical activity likely requires more of all nutrients, not just protein.
[24강- 03번:오래된 수작업 기술에서 얻는 즐거움]
Once production shifts to industrial methods, the leisure consumer is free to seek pleasure in the older handcraft technology. Typically, the technology itself enters one or more paths to pleasure as the market recognizes hobby demand: tools and materials are designed for comfort, beauty, and satisfaction. Both needlework tools and those of hobby woodworking have undergone this transition, to name only two of many possible examples. Fountain pens, considered obsolete as a production technology for writing, are selling at four-figure prices to people who simply enjoy the process of forming words with ink on paper and are willing to pay a premium for the pleasure. In the 1950s, the late Shelby Foote reportedly wrote his three-volume 1.5-million-word history of the Civil War with a dip pen, eschewing the then-dominant writing technologies ─ the manual typewriter and the fountain pen ― thereby lending a new meaning to the term "belletristic history."
[25강- Gateway:피아니스트이자 작가였던Charles Rosen]
Charles Rosen, a virtuoso pianist and distinguished writer, was born in New York in 1927. Rosen displayed a remarkable talent for the piano from his early childhood. In 1951, the year he earned his doctoral degree in French literature at Princeton University, Rosen made both his New York piano debut and his first recordings. To glowing praise, he appeared in numerous recitals and orchestral concerts around the world. Rosen's performances impressed some of the 20th century's most well-known composers, who invited him to play their music. Rosen was also the author of many widely admired books about music. His most famous book, The Classical Style, was first published in 1971 and won the U.S. National Book Award the next year. This work, which was reprinted in an expanded edition in 1997, remains a landmark in the field. While writing extensively, Rosen continued to perform as a pianist for the rest of his life until he died in 2012.
[25강- 01번:예술적 사고에 도움이 되는 스트레스]
Responding to life with joy and sorrow is part of being human. At times when pain and suffering are inescapable, it is important to remember that this is part of the process by which we acquire knowledge. This does not mean that one must be in discomfort to make art, but stress can be channeled into a creative force if it produces a sense of inquisitiveness and an incentive for change. Thinking through making pictures can allow us to place our distress in context. The images we make can help us understand its source, catalog its scope, adapt ourselves to its presence, and devise ways to control it. There are things in life, once called wisdom, which we have to discover for ourselves by making our own private journeys. Stress can be directed to open up possibilities for intelligent and imaginative inquiries and solutions that otherwise might have been ignored, overlooked, or refuted.
[25강- 02번:공간을 정의하는 건축적 특성]
Architectural spaces become memorable through the architectural characteristics that define them. Qualities of scale, appropriateness for people, aesthetics, and visual impact are among the many components that give a place its character and feel. The purpose of a space can make it a place. The Oval Office in the White House is a good example of a place with enormous historic significance. The unique oval shape of this splendid room makes it memorable and gives it a special importance without being ostentatious. Incidentally, George Washington had two rooms at Mount Vernon altered to include bowed ends so he could greet guests while standing in the middle as they circled around him. Thomas Jefferson designed two oval meeting rooms in the main floor of the Rotunda at the University of Virginia. Oval rooms were seen as being democratic because no person could be placed at a more important position in the room than anyone else.
[25강- 03번:큐레이터의 역할]
Museum and gallery exhibitions are 'hired' by or co-produced with other galleries; it is not uncommon for shows to be 'on the road' for two years or longer. Normally they are curated by one or more people, whose role includes researching the exhibition concept, the selection (or commissioning) of work, planning how the work will be hung within the exhibition space and writing a significant part of any accompanying book or catalogue. The power of the curator, operating regionally, nationally or internationally, has been questioned. Of course, curators take initiatives which contribute to the exposure of work. But they may also regularly favour certain artists, or types of work, at the expense of others. Furthermore, it has been suggested that curators often act more as 'creators', putting together themed exhibitions which, however relevant and interesting, serve as much to advance themselves as to showcase the work of artists. Indeed, all exhibitions and collections reflect the particular interests of their curators and archivists as well as the mission statement, priorities and terms of reference of particular organisations.
[26강- Gateway:창의성의 영역 간 활용]
Certain hindrances to multifaceted creative activity may lie in premature specialization, i.e., having to choose the direction of education or to focus on developing one ability too early in life. However, development of creative ability in one domain may enhance effectiveness in other domains that require similar skills, and flexible switching between generality and specificity is helpful to productivity in many domains. Excessive specificity may result in information from outside the domain being underestimated and unavailable, which leads to fixedness of thinking, whereas excessive generality causes chaos, vagueness, and shallowness. Both tendencies pose a threat to the transfer of knowledge and skills between domains. What should therefore be optimal for the development of cross-domain creativity is support for young people in taking up creative challenges in a specific domain and coupling it with encouragement to apply knowledge and skills in, as well as from, other domains, disciplines, and tasks.
[26강- 01번:적성의 다양성]
A significant challenge arises when we ask whether there is any such thing as general aptitude. Many people are terrific at calculus but couldn't write a good essay or paint a good picture if their lives depended on it. Some people can walk into a room full of strangers and immediately figure out the relationships and feelings among them; others may never learn this skill. As Will Rogers put it, "Everybody is ignorant, only on different topics." Clearly, individuals vary in their aptitude for learning any specific type of knowledge or skill taught in a specific way. A hundred students attending a lecture on a topic they knew nothing about beforehand will all walk away with different amounts and kinds of learning, and aptitude for that particular content and that particular teaching method is one important factor in explaining these differences. But would the students who learned the most in this class also learn the most if the lecture were on a different topic or if the same material were presented through hands-on experiences or in small groups?
[26강- 02번:학생의 발전 노력에 대한 보상]
One implication of expectancy theory is that even though all students should have a chance to be rewarded if they do their best, no student should have an easy time achieving the maximum reward. This principle is violated by traditional grading practices, because some students find it easy to earn A's and B's, whereas others believe that they have little chance of academic success no matter what they do. In this circumstance, neither high achievers nor low achievers are likely to exert their best efforts. This is one reason why it is important to reward students for effort, for doing better than they have done in the past, or for making progress, rather than only for getting a high score. For example, students can build a portfolio of compositions, projects, reports, or other work and can then see how their work is improving over time. Not all students are equally capable of achieving high scores, but all are equally capable of exerting effort, exceeding their own past performance, or making progress, so these are often better, more equally available criteria on which to base reward.
[26강- 03번:정체성을 형성하는 청소년기]
As students move into adolescence, they are developing capabilities for abstract thinking and understanding the perspectives of others. Even greater physical changes are taking place as the students approach puberty. So, with developing minds and bodies, young adolescents must confront the central issue of constructing an identity that will provide a firm basis for adulthood. They have been developing a sense of self since infancy. But adolescence marks the first time that a conscious effort is made to answer the now-pressing question: "Who am I?'' The conflict defining this stage is identity versus role confusion. Identity refers to the organization of an individual's drives, abilities, beliefs, and history into a consistent image of self. It involves deliberate choices and decisions, particularly about work, values, ideology, and commitments to people and ideas. If adolescents fail to integrate all these aspects and choices, or if they feel unable to choose at all, role confusion threatens.
[27강- Gateway:이민자의 문화적 정체성 유지]
The need to assimilate values and lifestyle of the host culture has become a growing conflict. Multiculturalists suggest that there should be a model of partial assimilation in which immigrants retain some of their customs, beliefs, and language. There is pressure to conform rather than to maintain their cultural identities, however, and these conflicts are greatly determined by the community to which one migrates. These experiences are not new; many Europeans experienced exclusion and poverty during the first two waves of immigration in the 19th and 20th centuries. Eventually, these immigrants transformed this country with significant changes that included enlightenment and acceptance of diversity. People of color, however, continue to struggle for acceptance. Once again, the challenge is to recognize that other cultures think and act differently and that they have the right to do so. Perhaps, in the not too distant future, immigrants will no longer be strangers among us.
[27강- 01번:언어마다 다른 공간 개념에 대한 인식]
Some assumptions that notions of space (that is, a three-dimensional area in which events and objects occur and have relative direction and position) are universal ― are being reexamined. Stephen Levinson showed that "systems of spatial reckoning and description can in fact be quite divergent across cultures, linguistic differences correlating with distinct cognitive tendencies." More specifically, languages vary in their use of spatial concepts and, in some instances, determine the cognitive categories relating to space concepts; also, the speakers of a number of languages do not use spatial terms corresponding to the bodily coordinates of left-right and front-back. One example comes from the Tenejapa Tzeltal of Mexico: Their language uses no relative frame of reference and therefore has no terms for spatial reference that would correspond to left, right, front, and back. Although terms exist for left hand and right hand, they do not extend to other parts of the body or to areas external to it.
[27강- 02번:언어의 보편성]
Languages are far more similar than had previously been thought, and that universality suggests that the human brain is designed to understand the world in certain ways, which may also correspond to the structure of reality. Thus, all languages have nouns and verbs, modifiers (adverbs and adjectives), and names and pronouns. Languages may differ as to the sequence of words in a sentence (e.g., verb in the middle or at the end), but sentences are always used. Even the sequence of words does not vary as widely as it could: Steven Pinker says that there are 128 possible orderings of the main parts of a sentence, but most languages use one of only two of those possibilities. Crucially, most languages seem to have an almost identical list of concepts, and as a result nearly all words and sentences can be translated effectively from one language into another.
[27강- 03번:작품 양식과 비평]
Some performers manipulate the style of their product to shift the incentives of critics to pay attention. Richard Posner cites Shakespeare, Nietzsche, Wittgenstein, and Kafka as figures who owe part of their reputation to the puzzling and perhaps even contradictory nature of their writings. Unclear authors, at least if they have substance and depth, receive more attention from critics and require more textual interpretation. Individual critics can establish their own reputations by studying such a writer and by promoting one interpretation of that writer's work over another. These same critics will support the inclusion of the writer in the canon, to promote the importance of their own criticism. In effect, deep and ambiguous writers are offering critics implicit invitations to serve as coauthors of a broader piece of work. Critics respond by examining these works more closely and spreading their fame more widely.
[28강- Gateway:소프트웨어 복잡성 증가의 영향]
The growing complexity of computer software has direct implications for our global safety and security, particularly as the physical objects upon which we depend ― things like cars, airplanes, bridges, tunnels, and implantable medical devices ― transform themselves into computer code. Physical things are increasingly becoming information technologies. Cars are "computers we ride in," and airplanes are nothing more than "flying Solaris boxes attached to bucketfuls of industrial control systems." As all this code grows in size and complexity, so too do the number of errors and software bugs. According to a study by Carnegie Mellon University, commercial software typically has twenty to thirty bugs for every thousand lines of code ― 50 million lines of code means 1 million to 1.5 million potential errors to be exploited. This is the basis for all malware attacks that take advantage of these computer bugs to get the code to do something it was not originally intended to do. As computer code grows more elaborate, software bugs flourish and security suffers, with increasing consequences for society at large.
[28강- 01번:데이터와 알고리즘에 의한 편향된 정보]
The proliferation of data brings with it many challenges for both reporting and consuming information. Social networks themselves are biased by their constituents, which never exactly mirror the population at large. Certain ethnicities are overrepresented, a significant challenge to social news as an equalizer. In addition, a growing number of algorithms make automated decisions on which content to recommend for people to read. Algorithms are generating top-news lists or hot trends and personalizing recommendations for readers. Algorithms leave the impression of being neutral, yet they are not. Algorithms are human creations. They encode political choices of their designers and have cultural values baked in. As curatorial power is enhanced by automated systems, we should understand the biases at play. Perhaps more important, we should work to make sure product engineers and designers are seeking to optimize the wanted outcome ― an informed public ― not just heightened traffic.
[28강- 02번:인간의 정보망에 의 종속]
How much time are we spending not truly connected to other things or people, in the analogue or real sense of the word? Not much. We have turned ourselves into human wearables, attached to our phones nonstop, with additional sensors from our smart watches and AI assistant devices, while we patiently await to upload our memories, fantasies, and consciousness to the cloud. In a relatively short time frame, we quickly transitioned from the internet to the internet of things and now the "You of Things," a concept that sees our bodies as part of an enormous sentient digital network, and our entire existence downgraded to the status of our smart TVs and refrigerator. Since our selves have been largely reduced to the digital fragments of our reputation captured in the many devices that connect us to others and the world, it is hard to disagree with Yuval Harari's argument that "we are becoming tiny chips inside a giant data-processing system that nobody really understands."
[28강- 03번:인터넷의 발전으로 인한 정보 편식 해소]
Much alarm and handwringing have occurred over the idea that the Internet allows you to lock yourself in an information bubble and see only facts that support your views. I am sure this happens, but it would do us good to remember the alternative. In 1980, for instance, you got your daily dose of information from your local paper and your choice of any of three network news shows, which ran for an hour, all covering the same basic stories. That was about it. We were all beholden to the views of a very few people. The Internet allows every statement to be fact-checked, every falsehood challenged. Anything you want to know is just a few keystrokes and a few clicks away. Well over 100,000 web searches are performed each second, and at their heart, they each represent a person who wants to know something they don't currently know. It is the great democratization of knowledge, which is an unquestionably good thing.
[29강- Gateway:자산으로서의 스트레스 반응]
Viewing the stress response as a resource can transform the physiology of fear into the biology of courage. It can turn a threat into a challenge and can help you do your best under pressure. Even when the stress doesn't feel helpful ― as in the case of anxiety ― welcoming it can transform it into something that is helpful: more energy, more confidence, and a greater willingness to take action. You can apply this strategy in your own life anytime you notice signs of stress. When you feel your heart beating or your breath quickening, realize that it is your body's way of trying to give you more energy. If you notice tension in your body, remind yourself that the stress response gives you access to your strength. Sweaty palms? Remember what it felt like to go on your first date ― palms sweat when you're close to something you want.
[29강- 01번:성장을 위한 취약성의 필요성]
Unfortunately, as we age, we tend to avoid vulnerability by avoiding change, so our learning opportunities are reduced and new learning slows. We've all had the experience of a reunion with an old friend, when listening to them saying how they've been, noticing how he or she has held onto some old beliefs that we discarded long ago. Probably the friend has not put himself or herself into a state of vulnerable openness for a long time. Personal growth involves trying out new behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs. Trying out something makes us vulnerable to failure and ridicule. When learning, we make mistakes, we look foolish ― even absurd. Who likes that? Willingness to take chances in life, to try new experiences, challenges or activities ― even though the outcome is unsure ― demands being vulnerable while doing so. Open-mindedness is one of those activities that we must do deliberately, because we are naturally inclined to avoid the vulnerability it entails.
[29강- 02번:기대가 아이들의 행동에 미치는 영향]
Expectations influence children's behavior. After observing the amount of litter in three classrooms, Richard Miller and colleagues had the teacher and others repeatedly tell one class that they should be neat and tidy. This persuasion increased the amount of litter placed in wastebaskets from 15 to 45 percent, but only temporarily. Another class, which also had been placing only 15 percent of its litter in wastebaskets, was repeatedly congratulated for being so neat and tidy. After 8 days of hearing this, and still 2 weeks later, these children were fulfilling the expectation by putting more than 80 percent of their litter in wastebaskets. Tell children they are hardworking and kind (rather than lazy and mean), and they may live up to their labels. Tying the identity to the self is important: Children who were asked to be "a helper" were more likely to help in later tasks than those asked to "help." When children think of themselves as tidy and helpful, they become tidy and helpful.
[29강- 03번:관계의 관리]
If maintenance of a balance in a relationship requires much work, why bother aiming for the middle ground? The wonderful thing about relationships is that with the proper maintenance, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Ideally, both members get support to realize their potential as individuals as well as realizing the potential of the team. If things go sour, the tremendous energy drain of an irreparably damaged relationship can also mean that the whole is less than the sum of its parts. Pooling resources ― as in a joint savings account ― makes them optimally large. But if one person only deposits and the other person only withdraws, checks are going to start bouncing. Similarly, if only one person in a relationship is performing maintenance and the other is indifferent, their joint account will also wind up with insufficient funds. Overdraft protection might cover everyday necessities, but it won't help when something big comes around.
[30강- Gateway:패션 산업에서‘장소’가 갖는 가치의 중요성]
Why is the value of place so important? From a historical perspective, until the 1700s textile production was a hand process using the fibers available within a particular geographic region, for example, cotton, wool, silk, and flax. Trade among regions increased the availability of these fibers and associated textiles made from the fibers. The First Industrial Revolution and subsequent technological advancements in manufactured fibers added to the fact that fibers and textiles were no longer "place-bound." Fashion companies created and consumers could acquire textiles and products made from textiles with little or no connection to where, how, or by whom the products were made. This resulted in a disconnect between consumers and the products they use on a daily basis, a loss of understanding and appreciation in the skills and resources necessary to create these products, and an associated disregard for the human and natural resources necessary for the products' creation. Therefore, renewing a value on place reconnects the company and the consumer with the people, geography, and culture of a particular location.
[30강- 01번:인간의 창조물인 색깔]
The ancient Egyptian term for 'colour' was iwn ― a word that also meant 'skin', 'nature', 'character' and 'being', and was represented in part by a hieroglyph of human hair. The members of that civilization had noticed a striking resemblance between colours and humans. To them colours were just like people ― full of life, energy, power and personality. We now understand, as the Egyptians could only sense, how thoroughly the two are connected. Colour, after all, is ultimately made by its perceivers. Every hue we see around us is actually manufactured within us ─ in the same grey matter that forms language, stores memories, triggers emotions, shapes thoughts and gives rise to consciousness. Colour is a pigment of our imaginations that we paint all over the world. Larger than any city, more sophisticated than any machine, more beautiful than any painting, it might in fact be the greatest human creation of them all.
[30강- 02번: Bentham의 팬옵티콘]
Bentham, the eighteenth-century utilitarian philosopher who promoted the social benefits of mass surveillance, designed a panopticon, a circular building where those to be observed, whether prisoners, workers, patients, or students, were placed in cells or rooms lined along an outside wall. An "inspector" sat in a booth at the center of the circle, unseen by those being watched, but able to see them. According to Bentham, even though this inspector could not observe every resident at every moment, simply knowing that they could be seen would be enough to make prisoners behave and keep workers and students on task. The panopticon's physical design proved impractical, but the idea that behavior could be regulated by stripping away privacy lived on. Closed-circuit television both on our streets and inside public and private spaces is the modern, subtle, and more practical version 2.0 of that first architectural panopticon.
[30강- 03번:공유 경제]
The mode of consumption has been changing from ownership to access during recent years because of the shift in consumers' perception of value and the advancement of technology. With the advent of online platforms that has made unlimited number of tangible and intangible resources accessible, ownership has lost its value in the consumers' mind. Consumers believe that access to resources is associated with fewer risks than ownership; for example, they believe that the potential financial and social loss is greater in the purchase of a product than in the free or fee-based access to the product. All these new changes and beliefs have created a sharing practice named "sharing economy" in which individuals share their resources with others through online networks and promote the culture of collaborative consumption. Sharing economy practices, which are seen in different sectors, have become very popular and started to disrupt traditional businesses.
[31강- Gateway:진화에서 잠이 하는 역할]
The role that sleep plays in evolution is still under study. One possibility is that it is an advantageous adaptive state of decreased metabolism for an animal when there are no more pressing activities. This seems true for deeper states of inactivity such as hibernation during the winter when there are few food supplies, and a high metabolic cost to maintaining adequate temperature. It may be true in daily situations as well, for instance for a prey species to avoid predators after dark. On the other hand, the apparent universality of sleep, and the observation that mammals such as cetaceans have developed such highly complex mechanisms to preserve sleep on at least one side of the brain at a time, suggests that sleep additionally provides some vital service(s) for the organism. This is particularly true since one aspect of sleep is decreased responsiveness to the environment. If sleep is universal even when this potential price must be paid, the implication may be that it has important functions that cannot be obtained just by quiet, wakeful resting.
[31강- 01번:환자의 감정적 영역에 대한 임상의의 관심]
Skilled clinicians pride themselves in their knowledge of diseases and treatments. Having an extensive command of anatomy and physiology, pharmacology, and the latest evidence-based breakthroughs is critical to providing competent care. But just as important is the knowledge of how illness can impact patient emotions. And although there is certainly room for individual variation, typical emotional reactions can often be anticipated. Having a sense of the normal emotions that accompany phases and stages of illness allows clinicians to think about how to incorporate the emotional domain into patient assessments and plans of care. Working with patients' emotions, from a place of understanding and acceptance, allows the clinician to skillfully address the emotions in a manner that best serves the patients' needs.
[31강- 02번:질환에 대해 지나치게 광범위한 개념화를 하려는 경향]
In medical sociology, a disease is considered an adverse physical state consisting of a physiological dysfunction within an individual, as compared to illness or sickness. In actual practice, the term disease is applied rather liberally to a wide variety of conditions that do not precisely fit the definition. One of the more controversial areas relates to mental illness. It could be argued that many, if not most, mental disorders would not be considered diseases under the definition above. The same could be said of other conditions that have been identified as "diseases" at various times. Examples include alcoholism and drug abuse. These conditions do not necessarily have the requisite clear-cut symptomatology and underlying biological pathology. They are nevertheless frequently treated as if they were diseases. One explanation for this is clear: In order for a condition to be treated by the healthcare system, it must be identified as a disease. Therefore, there is a tendency toward an overly broad conceptualization of disease.
[31강- 03번:지적 발전에 미치는 영양 및 건강의 영향]
Worldwide increases in IQ scores of about 3 points per decade over the last 100 years illustrate the potential for intellectual development. This increase in IQ scores, known as the Flynn effect, has occurred far too quickly to represent genetic changes. Improvements in nutrition and other health factors probably account for some of the change. Using information from the World Health Organization, researchers have identified strong correlations between a nation's freedom from serious infectious diseases and its citizens' average IQ scores. As nations become wealthier and more capable of battling disease, their citizens' IQ scores increase. Surprisingly, the test score gains are most pronounced in supposed culture-free tests such as the Raven's Progressive Matrices. Participants born after 1990 scored far better on these tests than did participants born in 1940. This change might reflect an improvement in the ability to manage dissimilar items that accompanies living in a modern society.
[Test 01 - 01번:업무 생산성 향상을 위한 작업 계획 수립 요청]
From Michael Jones, Chief Manager of FootCraft Shoes Factory To Eric Donovan, Team Leader of System Maintenance We are currently facing the challenge of maintaining our competitive edge in the rapidly evolving market environment. Therefore, the management team and I would like you to explore ways to address this challenge. Specifically, we are looking for a 25% increase in maintenance productivity within your work groups over the next three months. To get started, we would like you to meet with your team to discuss this assignment. Following the discussion, you should outline your thoughts on how to proceed and create a work plan. I would like to see your plan and review it with you in two weeks. This is a very important undertaking for our department and for the company. The management team and I look forward to seeing the innovative solutions you devise. Your contributions are invaluable to our success. Thank you.
[Test 01 - 02번:팔찌를 사게 된Kira]
Kira was playing with her doll when she heard a voice singing. "Churi, churi. Little girls, come and see." Kira ran to the window and saw a bangle seller with a basket on his head. He saw Kira and said, "Come little girl, come and buy some churis." She wanted to buy some, but she couldn't, because her mother had gone to the local market and there was no one there to give her money. Kira's heart sank at the thought of not being able to buy bangles. When she told the seller about her situation, he said, "Come and choose them at least. I'll take the money some other day." After thinking for a while, Kira went down. The bangle seller asked, "Child, which colour do you like best?" "Orange," said Kira and she selected some bangles. By then, Kira's mother returned from the market and had a few words with the seller before paying for the bangles. Kira was so glad. The sound of the bangles hitting each other sounded like music to her. She hummed her way back to her room.
[Test 01 - 03번:생태계 서비스의 상품화]
There has been an effort by some economists to commodify ecosystem services, which refer to benefits and resources that humans obtain from natural ecosystems. Some ecosystem services are rival, such as the waste absorption capacity for greenhouse gases, so rationing is necessary. Making rationing possible requires excludable property rights, for example, through auctionable emission permits. If emissions are limited to absorption capacity and equitably distributed, commodification can be both sustainable and just. However, many ecosystem services are inherently non-excludable and non-rival and therefore cannot and should not be commodified. They should also not be ignored. Public services serve all members of the human community; economists recognize that these services are ill-suited to commodification and market allocation. Ecosystem services should not be defined as nature's benefits to people, but rather as fund-services that benefit all members of the biotic community, not simply humans. Ecosystem services in general are an even worse fit for commodification than public services.
[Test 01 - 04번:감정에 대처하는 방법]
If we think about our feelings as being part of us but not all that we are, then our feelings can feel more manageable. This idea is captured in this metaphor: you are the blue sky; your feelings are the weather. If you are the blue sky and your feelings are the weather, then just as the worst hurricane or tornado can't damage the blue sky, and it eventually ends, your feelings can't damage you, and eventually they will pass. Sometimes we just have to wait out the storm. Does that mean it's fun to live through a tornado or a rainstorm? Of course not! Is it easier to live your life when it's sunny and 80 degrees Fahrenheit compared to when it's rainy and stormy? Of course! But if I let the weather determine what I can get done, I'll forever be at the mercy of something I can't control. Our job is to make space for our feelings, to be the blue sky, so we don't have to engage in unhealthy habits to cope with our feelings and we can continue to do the things that matter to us.
[Test 01 - 05번:인종 간 차이에 대한 증거의 부재]
In the lecture on memory, I ask my students to remember a list of words. It includes words like "dream" and "bed." Then I ask them to write down the words they remember. Invariably, they (mis)remember hearing the word "sleep" even though I never said the word "sleep." The idea of "sleep" is activated in the brain because other words in the same semantic network, words that have been associated with sleep through constant repetition, have also been activated. The word "sleep" is retrieved as if it were really heard. When people hear "bed," they cannot help but hear "sleep." When people hear "genes" or "intelligence" they cannot help but hear "race." A reader new to this topic might therefore be surprised to learn that there is zero evidence that genetics explains racial differences in outcomes like education. Currently, stories about genetically rooted racial differences in the complex human traits relevant for social inequality in modern industrialized economies ─ traits like persistence and conscientiousness and creativity and abstract reasoning ─ are just that. They are stories.
[Test 01 - 06번:수학적 모델과 생물학적 사실]
Simplifying a problem is what opens it up to mathematical analysis, so inevitably some biological details get lost in translation from the real world to the equations. As a result, those who use mathematics are frequently criticized as being too disinterested in those details. In his 1897 book Advice for a Young Investigator, Santiago Ramon y Cajal (the father of modern neuroscience) wrote about these reality-avoiding theorists in a chapter entitled 'Diseases of the Will'. He identified their symptoms as 'a facility for exposition, a creative and restless imagination, an aversion to the laboratory, and an indomitable dislike for concrete science and seemingly unimportant data'. Cajal also complained about the theorist's preference for beauty over facts. Biologists study living things that are abundant with specific traits and subtle exceptions to any rule. Mathematicians ― driven by simplicity, elegance and the need to make things manageable ─ silence that abundance when they put it into equations.
[Test 01 - 07번:인간 규범의 본질]
It's important to distinguish what humans are doing, in following norms, from what other animals are doing in their related patterns of behavior. An animal that decides not to pick a fight is, in most cases, simply worried about the risk of getting injured ― not about some abstract "norm against violence." Likewise, an animal that shares food with animals outside of its group is typically just trying to get future reciprocity ─ not following some "norm of food-sharing." The incentives surrounding true norms are more complex. When we do something "wrong," we have to worry about reprisal not just from the wronged party but also from third parties. Frequently, this means the entire rest of our local group, or at least a majority of it. Big strong Albert could easily steal from weak Bob without fearing trouble from Bob himself, but in human groups, Albert would then face punishment from the rest of the community. Collective enforcement, then, is the essence of norms. This is what enables the egalitarian political order so characteristic of the forager lifestyle.
[Test 01 - 08번: Geoffrey Hinton의 신경망 연구]
Geoffrey Hinton was born in England in 1947. He chose to study psychology as an undergraduate at Cambridge because he wanted to explore his growing interest in neural networks. He quickly realized, however, that his professors didn't actually understand how neurons learned or computed. While the science of the day could explain the mechanics of electrical signals traveling from one neuron to another, no one could offer Hinton a compelling explanation for the emergence of intelligence from these billions of interactions. He felt certain he could better understand the workings of the brain using tools from the growing field of artificial neural networks, so he went on to pursue a doctor's degree in artificial intelligence from the University of Edinburgh in 1972. In his subsequent research, he sought to create interconnected layers of information using hardware and software, just as the human brain spreads information around its dense web of connected neurons. Throughout his career, Hinton has held positions at various institutions, including Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Toronto.
[Test 01 - 09번:전 세계 플러그인 차량 판매량]
The above graph shows global plug-in vehicle sales from February 2020 to December 2022, represented by two-month intervals. In all three years, the sales were the least in February and the most in December. In 2021, each of the months showed an increase of more than 100,000 vehicles compared with the same month in 2020. In 2020, global sales of plug-in vehicles increased to more than 200,000 in June, and in December, they reached around 600,000. In 2021, global plug-in vehicle sales decreased from more than 600,000 in June to less than 600,000 in August, but then rose to more than 600,000 in October. In 2022, August saw a sales decrease from June, but sales increased to more than 1,000,000 in October.
[Test 01 - 12번:우주 이주의 난제]
From an evolutionary standpoint, ensuring the continuation of our species (specifically, our genetic descendants) is the meaning and purpose of life. But as intelligent animals, who can make decisions based on morality rather than biology, we could ask whether preserving our genome is worth any cost. Individual humans can and occasionally do make the choice to sacrifice their own lives in order to save the lives of other humans, or even non-human animals. But let's examine that choice, between biology and morality, on a global scale: What if preserving the human species means eliminating or abandoning all other life on Earth? What if it means humankind exists only in a state of misery and deprivation, in an eternally inhospitable and alien environment? This is not to argue that space settlement will definitely result in these worst-case scenarios, but rather to ask whether there is any imaginable case in which allowing or causing humans to become extinct is the more ethical choice.
[Test 01 - 13번:스포츠 팀 간의 건실한 경쟁상의 균형의 중요성]
In most business settings it is desirable to put competitors out of business. Naturally, fewer competitors mean more available customers. However, this is not always the case in sport. In fact, sport organizations that compete in leagues actually rely on the health of their competitors for their own success. For example, fans are often more attracted to a game where there is a close contest, and the winner is unknown in advance. Dominating a league or competition can be self-defeating, because the interest of fans can fade. When it is difficult to predict who will win a match, sport leagues attract higher attendances and viewers. Ironically, in order to remain successful, leagues and competitions need as many of their clubs to be competitive as possible. When the outcome of a match is highly predictable, it will not attract large crowd numbers and eventually it will reduce ticket, media and sponsorship revenue. It is important for sport that there is a healthy, competitive balance between teams. This leads to uncertainty about who will win a contest, and encourages fans to watch.
[Test 01 - 14번:어린아이에게 반복적으로 노출되는 광고]
The fact that the young brain is in a constant state of absorption should give us pause. Regulations are in place to prevent certain types of companies from marketing directly to children. These are good measures, but they also provide a false sense of security. Why? Just like with language learning, young children don't need ads explicitly directed at them to learn about a product, or the consumer world in general. Think about ads on websites, TV, mobile, and social media, and in video games. Children are showered with repeated exposure to thousands of ads for hundreds of brands, and their spongy, malleable brains are constantly taking this information in. In a study, researchers discovered that kids are exposed to so many ads that they will have memorized three hundred to four hundred brands before their tenth birthday. Creepily, children grow up forming relationships with a select number of these brands that last well into the future, like friends you didn't know they had.
[Test 01 - 15번:집단의 속성으로서의 협력하는 경향]
People often think that personality traits such as kindness are fixed. But our research with groups suggests something quite different: the tendency to be altruistic or exploitative may depend heavily on how the social world is organized. So if we took the same population of people and assigned them to one social world, we could make them really generous to one another, and if we put them in another sort of world, we could make them really mean or indifferent to one another. Crucially, this indicates that the tendency to cooperate is a property not only of individuals but also of groups. Cooperation depends on the rules governing the formation of friendship ties. Good people can do bad things (and vice versa) simply as a result of the structure of the network which they belong to, regardless of the convictions they hold or that the group shares. It is not just a matter of being connected to "bad" people; the number and pattern of social connections is also crucial. Aspects of the social suite, such as cooperation and social networks, work together.
[Test 01 - 16번:뜨거움과 차가움을 이용한 생리적 체계 강화]
Our natural survival instinct is to seek comfort in temperatures that keep us around 68 to 72 degrees Fahrenheit (20-22.2'C). By getting outside of this comfort zone and stressing the cellular functioning of the body either by using heat and cold in the same session or focusing on one temperature extreme, we strengthen our physiological systems. We lower our daily breathing rate, improve our muscle tissue, and raise our threshold for handling stress. Evidence shows that we are at our best ─ physically harder, mentally tougher, and spiritually sounder ─ after experiencing the same discomforts our early ancestors were exposed to every day. The lack of temperature change caused by indoor lifestyles and misalignment with nature has taken us far from our ancestorial upbringing, and it continues to weaken the nervous system. By intentionally placing ourselves into the heat or cold, we become our best physically, mentally, and even spiritually.
[Test 01 - 17번:내적 모형과 불일치하는 가장(假裝)놀이]
Suppose a child plays at make-believe. She barks, crawls on all fours, and says, "I'm a puppy!" In order to make the claim, her brain must construct the key proposition "I'm a puppy" as well as contain the information that puppies bark and walk on all fours. And yet that information exists in a larger context. Her brain contains a vast net of information, including "I'm not really a puppy," "I'm making it up to play a game," "I'm a little girl," and so on. Some of that information is present at a cognitive and linguistic level. Much of it is at a deeper, sensory or perceptual level. Her body schema is constructed automatically, beneath higher cognition, and it describes the physical layout of a human body, not a puppy body. She sees her human hands in front of her, and the visual information confirms her human identity. She remembers eating breakfast cereal with a spoon, going to school, reading a book ― all human activities. The claim "I'm a puppy" is a superficial proposition that is inconsistent with her deepest internal models.
[Test 01 - 18번:관계 형성의 기반이 되는 사회적 기본 값]
Your children establish their social comfort and skills early in their lives by observing you in your own social life and through the social experiences they have. These first social experiences become the defaults that will guide and shape the quality and quantity of their relationships throughout their lives. Genetics clearly has an influence on these defaults; research has demonstrated that children are born with a certain temperament, including where they lie on the continuum of introversion to extraversion. But, as the saying goes, "genetics are not destiny"; the messages that your children get from you early in their lives about how they should interact with others will influence how their genetic predispositions will be expressed. In this interaction of genes and upbringing, your children will develop social defaults that trigger social ease, connectedness, and healthy relationships, or social anxiety, loneliness, and dysfunctional relationships.
[Test 01 - 19번:서로 다른 문화의 충돌]
When different cultures meet, whether at the societal level or in the company, ideas about how things should be done often clash. To resolve it, we typically make the assumption that others should change to be more like us. And we can enforce this view because we are in power ― either as the boss in an organization or as the dominant culture in a country. But assuming that the dominant person or country has the right rules and the right way is, in itself, anathema to innovating. Self-satisfied people are not good innovators. So when you ask people to do something not consistent with their cultural background, ask yourself whether you should be rethinking your assumptions about what works best. For example, free-flowing talk is usually considered the hallmark of a good meeting. Everybody just jumps in whenever they have a thought. However, in some cultures, this is considered rude and pushy, so some people with excellent ideas may not speak up. One solution might be to strengthen their group skills but other methods are to occasionally ask everyone to express an opinion in turn, ask for ideas in writing, or table an idea on someone else's behalf.
[Test 01 - 20번:뉴런 의 활동]
Like some strange alien creature extending tentacles, each neuron is simultaneously connected to up to thousands of other neurons. It is the combined activity of information coming in that determines whether a neuron is active or not. When the sum of this activity reaches a tipping point, the neuron fires, discharging a small chemical electrical signal and setting off a chain reaction in its connections. In effect, each neuron is a bit like a microprocessor because it computes the combined activity of all the other neurons it is connected to. It's a bit like spreading a rumor in a neighborhood. Some of your neighboring neurons are excitatory and, like good friends, want to help spread the word. Other neurons are inhibitory and basically tell you to shut up. And every time the neuron has such a conversation with its different neighbors or long-distance pals, it remembers the message either to spread the word or be silent, so that when the rumor comes round again, the neuron responds with more certainty. This is because the connections between the neurons have become strengthened by repeatedly firing together.
[Test 01 - 21번:질료인(質料因)과 동력인(動力因)]
Conventional economics uses the phrase "factors of production." Factors of production are the inputs into a production process necessary to create any output. For example, when you make a pizza, you need a cook, a kitchen with an oven, and the raw ingredients. If you think about it carefully, however, you will clearly see that the cook and kitchen are different in some fundamental ways from the raw ingredients. The cook and kitchen are approximately the same after making the pizza as before, though just a bit more worn out. The raw ingredients, however, are used up, transformed first into the pizza itself, then rapidly thereafter into waste. The cook and kitchen are not physically embodied in the pizza, but the raw ingredients are. Thousands of years ago, Aristotle discussed this important distinction and divided causation (factors) into material cause, that which is transformed, and efficient cause, that which causes the transformation without itself being transformed in the process. Raw ingredients are the material cause, and the cook and kitchen are the efficient cause.
[Test 01 - 22번:자녀 양육에 드는 경제적 비용의 분담]
A society needs to raise children to replace its members who die, or the society would disappear over a couple of generations. One could, therefore, think of the production of children as a positive externality. Those who do not have children benefit from the child-rearing labors of those who do; they enjoy a society of varied ages in which to live as they grow older, and a labor force of younger people is available to support them in their retirement. Should all then share in the economic costs of raising the children? In the United States, the cost of educating children is borne collectively through the system of public education, but most other costs of raising children are treated as private costs of the parents. In about half of the world's states, however, the full society assumes some of the responsibility for all costs of child rearing by giving direct grants to families with children. These grants are often pegged to the median income of workers in the country: the government might give 10 percent of the country's median income to any family with two children, for example.
[Test 01 - 23번:영장류의 추상적 관계형 추론 능력]
Primates are capable of sophisticated forms of reasoning in naturalistic settings, especially when their food ― or position in the social hierarchy ― is in danger. However, it is unclear how versatile their relational reasoning might be. In the 1940s, the primatologist Harry Harlow made an interesting discovery. In a series of experiments, monkeys learnt to choose between two visual objects, one of which was rewarded and one was not. Harlow noted with surprise that each time the task was restarted with two entirely novel objects, the monkeys learnt slightly faster. In fact, their performance continued to accelerate over hundreds of new object sets, until eventually the monkeys could respond almost perfectly from the second trial onwards. Harlow argued that over the course of repeated pairings, the monkeys had learnt how to learn. It seems that the monkeys learnt something abstract about the relations between the two stimuli in each pairing ― that if one was rewarded, the other was not. By generalizing this knowledge to new pairings, they could learn ever faster. Human children tested in a comparable fashion showed the same ability. [요약문] Harry Harlow's experiments show that primates, like humans, can apply abstract relational reasoning in a different context, which happens faster with increased exposure to stimuli.
[Test 01 - 24~25번:기억에 영향을 끼치는 스키마]
In the 1930s, the English psychologist Sir Frederic Bartlett proposed that we gradually build up our knowledge of the world from events we experience, and that these experiences are then clustered in organized mental structures he called "schemata." In turn, these schemata (or "schemas") are used to help us understand new experiences and form frameworks in which to remember them. One potential downside of this arrangement is that it is relatively difficult for us to understand and remember information and events that do not fit our current schemata. One of Bartlett's classic demonstrations was to present an unusual North American folktale to an English university student to learn and recall. The student's written recall differed from the original by being shorter and omitting a number of details. This first student's written recall was then given to a second student to learn and recall with the result that more unusual details were dropped out of his reproduction, but other details were added, apparently to make the story more coherent and comprehensible to English ears. This procedure was repeated until a series of ten students had learned the previous reproduction and produced their own versions. By the end of the series, the reproductions were much shorter, the supernatural details in the original had been lost, and the whole tale was closer to the experience of English university students in the 1930s. This demonstration thus illustrates the constructive nature of remembering, and the effects of beliefs and attitudes on recollection and understanding. Gossip serves as a commonplace example that is similar to Bartlett's findings, with a story progressively changing as it travels across tellings. To return to metaphors for a moment, human memory is not like a tape recorder!
[Test 01 - 26~28번:불안한 비올라 연주자를 위한 조언]
Mary, a young violist, played a slow sarabande by Bach during a presentation Theresa Adams made at the Music Educators National Conference in San Antonio, Texas. The piece requires sustained control of the bow arm, a warm tone, and precise pitch. Being very shy, Mary was noticeably self-conscious playing before this large gathering of educators. While rehearsing for the performance, she had a very hard time controlling her anxiety. Mary had difficulty keeping her bow from shaking, and her tone was thin and scratchy. Theresa could see that Mary had a warm feeling for the music she was playing but that she felt too inhibited to express it. Theresa spoke to Mary privately for a few moments so that the audience wouldn't know what instruction she had given to Mary. Theresa asked Mary who her favorite Bach violist was, and she replied that it was Martha Katz and she wanted to play the sarabande like her. Theresa then instructed Mary to imagine there was a video camera above the stage taping her performance. Theresa told Mary it didn't matter whether she played out of tune or missed notes or had poor tone. All that mattered was that she should look the way Martha Katz looked while playing Bach. Theresa told Mary the camera was only recording the way she looked, and that her sound would be replaced by a CD of her role model playing the same piece. Since Mary no longer had to worry about how she played, she felt free to throw herself into the role of Martha Katz during the playing session. She not only looked confident, relaxed, and dignified ─ she also played with bow control, accuracy, and fine phrasing. She effectively "became" Martha Katz as she performed the Bach sarabande. The audience was shocked by her playing and curious to know what instructions Theresa had given her that had produced such a marked effect. And Mary realized that although she had been imagining she was Martha Katz, she was still the one playing the viola.
[Test 02 - 01번:약사 직위 제안 거절]
Dear Mr. Cole, Thank you for your offer of the pharmacist position. The position is attractive to me because I have a strong passion for healthcare and a desire to make a positive impact on patients' lives. As I indicated in our last interview, however, I was disappointed to learn that your company would not be in a position to reimburse tuition costs for my ongoing study toward a Doctor of Pharmacy degree, currently a primary professional goal of mine. On March 14, I was offered another position by a company whose benefits package includes tuition reimbursement. Because I expect these costs to be substantial in the next two years, I have decided to accept this position. I sincerely appreciate the time you have taken and the special interest you have shown in me during the interview. Thank you again for your consideration. Best regards, Julie Robinson
[Test 02 - 02번:위험에 처한Captain Hall]
One day, Captain Hall, the famous Arctic explorer, went in a small boat to visit a certain island which he wanted to explore. The boat was fastened to a piece of rock on the shore. When he returned from his expedition, he discovered the tide had risen and floated his boat, which was quite out of reach. Captain Hall feared the extreme danger in which he was placed. The boat was the only connecting link between him and the living world, and it was beyond his reach. What was to be done? To swim towards the boat was out of the question in such a climate. He did the only thing that seemed possible. He unwound the thongs that fastened his boots to create a line about twenty feet long. He attached a heavy stone to its end and threw it into the boat, pulling the boat to the shore. It was with unspeakable comfort that Captain Hall once more entered it and felt he was saved from inevitable starvation ─ saved by a shoe-string!
[Test 02 - 03번:새로운 과학,기술의 발전과 더불어 발전하는 법]
Think about the changes that have taken place in our world over the past 100 years. The first to come to mind are probably the spectacular scientific and technological achievements of the past century ─ motor vehicles, aircraft, the telephone, radio and TV, computers and genetic engineering. Each new development creates its own demand for legal change. Consider, for example, the vast body of law which has grown up around the motor vehicle: there are regulations governing such matters as the construction and maintenance of motor vehicles, the conduct of drivers on the road and even where vehicles may be parked. Indeed, almost half of the criminal cases tried by magistrates' courts are directly related to the use of motor vehicles. The increasing volume of traffic on the roads and the resulting inexorable rise in traffic accidents have also led to developments in the civil law, especially in the areas of the law of tort and insurance.
[Test 02 - 04번:진리 추구와 도덕적 판단]
Sometimes pursuing the truth about some question would be morally worse than not pursuing it. This may be because, as in the case of nuclear weapons research, the answer itself may prove dangerous or harmful. But it may also be because the manner of pursuing that truth is dangerous or harmful, or simply morally wrong independently of its consequences. Consider the Nazi or Tuskegee experiments: it is not the information pursued that is morally bad here, but the manner in which that information is pursued. And we need not resort to such dramatic cases. The National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation heavily monitor contemporary scientific research that involves any sort of experiment involving human subjects. In cases where the only way in which we can obtain certain scientific information is harmful to other people, we generally feel ─ rightly ─ that the information is not worth pursuing, all things considered. So in deciding whether to pursue a particular line of inquiry, we must first determine whether pursuing that line might conflict with our other values, moral or otherwise.
[Test 02 - 05번:유년 시절 경험의 제한을 받는 희생자]
As parents, we spend countless hours debating on the freedoms we should allow our children. Too much freedom may lead to mischief while not enough may stifle their growth. How much should be allowed? I am always reminded of a circus elephant when in a discussion on freedom. When the elephant is a baby, it learns restriction by being tethered to a small stake with a four-foot piece of chain. The elephant is trained to know that its individual freedom is restricted to that small four feet. As the elephant grows stronger and larger, it still thinks that it has no more freedom outside of those four feet. Although the power to move that stake and run free is immense, it will not attempt to break the stake or the chains because of what it perceives as being able to. Are you a victim of your own restraints as well? Do you not move beyond your four feet circle because you think you are not allowed to? Be bold. Step outside your circle and see if you can grow. Without breakthroughs, there cannot be change.
[Test 02 - 06번:인종 이데올로기]
The most effective way to defuse racial ideology is to bring people from different ethnic backgrounds together under conditions that enable them to deal with one another as individuals and discover that ideologies obscure important aspects of people and the realities of their lives. However, this is difficult when teachers, coaches and employers maintain a belief in the myth of black natural physical talent and a lack of cognitive skills. Social scientist Ellis Cashmore illustrates this with an experience of receiving a telephone call from a black journalist writing for a major newspaper. The journalist asked why no one actually expressed what he believed to be an absolute truth: that black athletes have a 'natural edge'. The very fact that a talented black journalist believed this defective theory is evidence to its power and the difficulties in escaping expectations based on racial ideology. When such myths maintain credibility in society, black people are regarded as unsuited to, or unwanted for, study, work and other activities that demand mental rather than physical skills.
[Test 02 - 07번:협상의 기술]
Negotiators can make options more palatable by enhancing the attractiveness of accepting them. This is a matter of placing emphasis on the positive rather than the negative. In the language of traditional carrot-and-stick tactics for motivating workers, the approach should make the carrot more attractive rather than enlarging the stick. Promises and offers can be made more attractive in several ways: maximizing the attractive qualities and minimizing the negative ones, showing how the offer meets the other party's needs, reducing the disadvantages of accepting the offer, making offers more credible by providing third-party references or factual support, or setting deadlines on offers so they expire if not accepted quickly. Many would argue that these are common sales tricks similar to discount coupons, two-for-the-price-of-one offers, "today only" sales, and extra-added-attraction elements. They are! Negotiators can and should use the same techniques that salespeople use to move their products.
[Test 02 - 08번:클라리넷 연주자Benny Goodman]
Benny Goodman is one of the greatest clarinetists of all time. Born in 1909 in Chicago, he began taking lessons at the age of 10. With a natural inborn talent, he made rapid progress and was soon playing professionally. He was strongly influenced by New Orleans jazz, and it played an important role in his music throughout his life. At 16, he joined the Ben Pollack Orchestra in Chicago, which at the time was one of the top bands in the United States. He was soon making recordings, and it wasn't long before he formed his own band. Although Goodman was relatively well known before 1935, it was the change in his style that occurred in the Palomar Ballroom in Los Angeles that really caused his career to take off. And a few years later, he was playing in Carnegie Hall in New York City. At the time, this was something new for a jazz orchestra. The concert was a tremendous success. After years of appealing only to specialized audiences, jazz had finally broken through and was being accepted by mainstream audiences.
[Test 02 - 09번:연령 집단별 소득층 점유율]
The graph above shows the share (%) of American adults in each income tier by age group in 1971 and 2021. Among American adults ages 18 to 29, the share in the upper-income tier increased by 5 percentage points from 1971 to 2021, whereas their share in the middle-income tier decreased by 12 percentage points during the same period. Among the 1971 middle-income tiers, the share of American adults ages 30 to 44 was higher than that of any other age group. In 1971, more than two-thirds of American adults ages 45 to 64 were in the middle-income tier, and in 2021, more than half of the people in that age group were in the same income tier. The share of American adults ages 65 and older in the lower-income tier fell from 54% in 1971 to 37% in 2021, while their share in the middle income tier rose from 39% to 47% during the same period. However, American adults 65 and older were the only age group in which more than one-in-three adults were in the lower-income tier in 2021.
[Test 02 - 12번:인간이 다른 종과 관계를 맺는 방식]
In the worldview of the Cree hunter, humans do not control the hunt. The fish and game are not there simply to be taken. Rather it is the animals who control the success of the hunt by offering themselves willingly to people (or, conversely, choosing to withhold themselves from a hunter). The Cree credit animals with knowing the same things that people know and being able to communicate and share that knowledge with people. Humans and animals are in a relationship of reciprocity, just as humans are in relationship with other humans. Indeed, anthropologists argue even more generally that in all cultures, including those that are modern and postmodern, there are profound connections between the ways that people engage with each other and with other species.
[Test 02 - 13번:원격 근무를 통한 새로운 고용의 창출]
Stay-at-home parents have new employment options in our internet economy. Over the last few decades many women have been self-employed. Such an arrangement gives them greater flexibility over their hours and days of work. The rise of remote work could further increase opportunities for them. Internet platforms such as Withinwork are two-sided platforms as workers seeking employment post their resumes and employers seeking workers post their tasks. Artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms play a key matchmaking role here by gathering and presenting the set of job opportunities a person sees. I set up my profile on Withinwork and was impressed with the alternative tasks that I was offered by the AI. As with any two-sided matching platform, the more job offerings an applicant sees, the more likely that person will find value in the platform. In this sense, as remote work grows as a socially high-status activity, this process will gain its own momentum.
[Test 02 - 14번:사회적 약자 우대 정책]
Considerable debate exists as to the appropriate beneficiaries of affirmative action. In the United States, supporters of affirmative action hoped that, by expanding the coverage to apply to many minority groups, they would broaden the political base favoring such programs. In practice, however, the wider coverage has diluted, in the minds of some, the moral argument in favor of a program intended to help the most obvious victims of governmental discrimination: African Americans and Native Americans. Some argue that the context matters. Thus, because Asian Americans and women are generally not under-represented among university student bodies, affirmative action admissions for them would now be inappropriate (though they should not be singled out for restrictions). On the other hand, among corporate executives or university faculties, blacks, Asians, Latinos, and women all faced exclusion in the past and remain under-represented today; therefore, in these areas all four groups ought to be beneficiaries of affirmative action.
[Test 02 - 15번:기술 혁신으로 인한 창조적 파괴]
Predictions of technological unemployment have recurred since the onset of the Industrial Revolution. But the recurring reality was one of economic growth through creative destruction. Yes, machines destroyed lots of jobs, often with devastating effects on displaced workers for whom new jobs were often too late or out of reach. Over time, however, job destruction freed up labor and capital that went into new and usually better jobs and higher incomes. That is because technology both substitutes for labor ─ in particular, less-skilled labor ─ and complements labor, or makes it more productive, thus generating new demand for labor. Casual observers have often tended "to overstate the extent of machine substitution for human labor," which was readily observable; they "repeatedly underestimated the demand for the work of human beings that would remain."
[Test 02 - 16번:컴퓨터 음악에서 손놀림과 음의 관계]
The most common situation in which musical equipment becomes an instrument is in live performance. Playing the piano is generally associated with performance in real-time, and computer-based musical instruments are increasingly being played in real-time. For example, laptop computers are increasingly used in performance by live electronic musicians even in preference to keyboard synthesizers, groove boxes, and turntables. One thing that changes in computer performances is that the gestural relationship with sound is sometimes less direct. In acoustic instrument performance the musician's gestures are translated into sound. Many instruments have a one-to-one gesture-to-sound relationship, including the press of the piano or synthesizer key, or the slide of the finger of the guitar fretboard; each translates gesture into a direct audible result. Many electronic and computer-based instruments have a one-to-many gesture-to-sound relationship when a mouse gesture or parameter movement changes the complexity of a rhythmic part, or the timbre and volume of an entire ensemble of musical voices.
[Test 02 - 17번:불확신과 주장의 강도]
Two Northwestern University marketing researchers, David Gal and Derek Rucker, conducted research using framing techniques to make people feel uncertain. For example, they told one group to remember a time when they were full of certainty, and the other group to remember a time when they were full of doubt. Then they asked the participants whether they were meat eaters, vegetarians, vegans, or otherwise, how important this was to them, and how confident they were in their opinions. People who were asked to remember a time of uncertainty were less confident of their eating choices. However, when asked to write their beliefs to persuade someone else to eat the way they did, they would write more and stronger arguments than those who were certain of their choice. Gal and Rucker performed the research with different topics (for example, preferences for a Mac versus a Windows computer) and found similar results. When people were less certain, they would dig in and argue even harder.
[Test 02 - 18번:일시적인 미디어 단식의 필요성]
In the same way that it is sometimes advisable to take a momentary break, or "fast," from some of our food, beverages, and habits, a media fast may be good for your system. Spending a set period of time unplugged can clarify for you the advantages and disadvantages of your media practices. Life without electronic devices momentarily separates you from constant distraction, online advertisements, and artificial blue light. You'll have more time for other things, like physical activity, face-to-face interaction, and even solitude. You'll also have the opportunity to reflect critically on how life in the Communication Age differs from older modes of living and connecting and engaging with the world.
[Test 02 - 19번:대중의 존경을 중시하는 나르시시스트]
To the extent that one can distinguish self-esteem from public esteem, the latter seems to be more important. The overriding motive of narcissists seems to be to obtain social approval from others. That is, they spend much of their time and energy seeking ways to get others to admire them. In terms of being liked by others rather than admired, they are somewhat indifferent. That is, narcissists are no more nor less interested than anyone else in being liked. Being admired, however, is extremely important to them. In general, they do not seem overly concerned with proving something to themselves (possibly because they are already privately persuaded of their own good qualities), but they are quite interested in demonstrating their superiority to others. For example, if given a chance to tackle a difficult task and find out how good they are, narcissists put forth minimal effort if no one is looking, which is a sign that they do not really care about demonstrating their brilliance to themselves, whereas if others are watching, they put forth maximum effort in order to shine.
[Test 02 - 20번:등반과 윤리]
One obvious area where climbing and philosophy intersect is with regard to the normative dimension of climbing ― the ethical or unethical behavior of climbers. Some of the ethical issues in climbing involve a straightforward extension of more general moral principles. For example, it is wrong to lie about your climbing accomplishments because it is generally wrong to lie about accomplishments; it is wrong to needlessly endanger others at the cliff because, more generally, it is always wrong to needlessly endanger others. However, other ethical issues involve factors that are unique to climbing and thus cannot be resolved by invoking broader moral rules. Is it wrong to place bolts on rappel? Is it cheating to use pre-placed gear on a traditional pitch? For these sorts of questions, broader moral rules do not apply in any straightforward way, and climbers must work out for themselves what is right or wrong within the context of climbing.
[Test 02 - 21번:지각에 수반된 시각적 자극 처리 과정]
Sensation and perception almost always happen together. Researchers, however, have studied each process separately to determine how the two work together. Perception can occur through bottom-up processing, which begins with the physical stimuli from the environment, and proceeds through transduction of those stimuli into neural impulses. The signals are passed along to successively more complex brain regions, and ultimately result in the recognition of a visual stimulus. For example, when you look at the face of your best friend, your eyes convert light energy into neural impulses, which travel into the brain to visual regions. This information forms the basis for sensing the visual stimulus and ultimately its perception. Equally important to perception, however, is top-down processing, which involves previously acquired knowledge. As a result, when you look at your best friend's face, brain regions that store information about what faces look like, particularly those that are familiar to you, can help you to perceive and recognize the specific visual stimulus.
[Test 02 - 22번:성 주류화]
The European Union, since the late 1990s, has embraced gender mainstreaming as its main strategy for addressing gender inequality in policy making. It is defined as the integration of the gender perspective into every stage of the policy process (design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation). Gender mainstreaming is based on the understanding that all policies have the potential to impact social and demographic groups differently, thus creating and sustaining unequal power relations. For example, gender mainstreaming may explicitly consider the experiences of men, such as parental leave as a legal claim for men or labor policies for men in female-dominated occupations (e.g., nursing). Gender mainstreaming can also apply to health care, equally promoting women's and men's health care needs. In many countries, coronary heart disease is defined through a masculine lens, influencing all areas of medical care from prevention to recovery. Not only does this lead to overlooking women's heart health needs, but it also may negatively impact men who do not seem to fit the model of hegemonic masculinity.
[Test 02 - 23번:뉴런 의 경쟁과 뇌의 재구조화]
Although a traditional textbook drawing suggests that neurons in the brain are happily packed next to one another like jelly beans in a jar, don't let the cartoon fool you: neurons are locked in competition for survival. Just like neighboring nations, neurons stake out their territories and persistently defend them. They fight for territory and survival at every level of the system: each neuron and each connection between neurons fights for resources. As the border wars rage through the lifetime of a brain, maps are redrawn in such a way that the experiences and goals of a person are always reflected in the brain's structure. If an accountant drops her career to become a pianist, the neural territory devoted to her fingers will expand; if she becomes a microscopist, her visual cortex will develop higher resolution for the small details she seeks; if she becomes a perfumer, her brain regions assigned to smell will enlarge. [요약문] Neurons constantly struggle with each other for existence, which leads to the personalization of the brain structure based on one's experiences and goals.
[Test 02 - 24~25번:도로 혼잡 통행료 징수제]
In Singapore, due to road pricing, one can always expect to be able to achieve a speed of 40 miles per hour on the road. While the rich are more likely to afford this, buses can also achieve these speeds, and with the economies of scale of a bus this lowers the per-person trip price for achieving this speed. The full cost of commuting includes not only the out-of-pocket expenditure on gasoline, parking, and road use fees but the value of the lost time. If a commute takes thirty minutes rather than fifteen minutes because of traffic congestion, then the commuter has lost fifteen minutes. Economists have adopted the rule of thumb of valuing such lost time by half of the person's hourly wage. For example, if I earn $80 an hour and I lose fifteen minutes stuck in traffic, then this costs me $10 in lost time (.25 x 80 x .5). To conserve on such lost time due to congestion, cities such as Stockholm, London, and Singapore have adopted road pricing. Drivers in such cities move at higher speeds and save time but must pay more money out of pocket to travel at peak use times. One explanation for why so few cities have adopted road pricing focuses on behavioral economics: people are used to the roads being free. To an economist, this is a puzzling explanation because congested roads cost us valuable time. This time cost means that free roads are not free to use. A second explanation for the opposition to road pricing is that many poor people drive and they prefer to pay for their commute using their time rather than paying a road use fee.
[Test 02 - 26~28번:코코넛 나무에서 배운 교훈]
One hot afternoon, little William and his dad were passing through a dusty village road. It was a dry season, so little William thought the whole village road looked lonely and deserted. After walking for a long while, he asked his dad to stop somewhere for a short rest. Looking around, little William and his dad could not find a comfortable place to relax. Unable to find anywhere to rest, they were forced to keep walking under the hot bright sun. After a few minutes' walk, little William and his dad saw a huge coconut tree far off in the distance that could provide shade from the burning sun, so they started walking faster to reach the tree. "Dad, why don't you race me to the tree?" little William asked his dad. After letting out a short smile, he agreed to the race and, at the count of three, he watched little William take off like a runner. Unknowingly to little William, his dad let him win. He jumped for joy because he reached the huge coconut tree first. Little William and his dad breathed a deep sigh of relief because they were so exhausted from walking all day. They dropped all that they had with them on the ground and lay down under the huge coconut tree, which protected them from the sun. And they embraced the cool breeze in the air. Then, they began to feel hungry. Little William looked up towards the huge coconut tree and said, "This huge coconut tree is useless. It doesn't have any coconuts we can eat." "My dear little William," his dad responded, "it is not good to be ungrateful to people and things around us. This tree, which you are calling useless, saved us from the hot sun." Little William gently stood from where he lay and turned towards the tree. He thanked it for protecting them from the sun. The coconut tree began to give little William and his dad a more pleasant wind.
[Test 03 - 01번:임시 피클볼 경기장 마련 계획]
Dear Members, Thank you for always supporting our park's efforts to improve our community's health and social bonds. As we have announced, construction at Lions Park will begin as soon as the spring season allows. As an alternative place to play pickleball in town this summer, the lines for three pickleball courts will be painted on the blacktop surface at Rose Park, located at 201 Green Valley Road. The blue equipment bin with portable nets and extra balls from Lions Park will be relocated there as well. The combination to unlock the bin can be obtained by calling the front desk at the community center. If you have any questions regarding the alternative pickleball courts, please contact Mark Perkins at mperkins@ShakopeeMN.gov. We look forward to the completion of the new dedicated pickleball courts at Lions Park this summer. Sincerely, Mark Perkins
[Test 03 - 02번:기차역에서 기다림 후에 만난 아빠]
I should have guessed things were not going to go well when I stepped off the train at Weston Station and there was no sign of my father. I was only fifteen, and there was no way I could go back home if he didn't show up. I wandered up and down the platform. The waiting felt like forever, and I began to anxiously wonder if something bad had happened to him. After a while, one of the station employees approached me and asked me if I was all right. I said I was fine, but inside, my concern was growing. Then I glanced to the left and noticed my dad. At that very moment, all my anxieties disappeared. 'Dad!' I shouted. I snatched my little bag from the floor and ran to him. 'Sorry to keep you waiting, Son,' he said, ruffling my hair and pulling me close to him. 'Let's go home.' He smiled, and I returned his smile with an even bigger one.
[Test 03 - 03번:지속 가능한 도시 조성을 위한 도시 농업]
Urban agriculture is moving from just a practice for earning an income and small food-producing activities to a more sustainable practice that focuses on promoting local food production as an energy-saving resource that is central to creating vital urban communities. It needs to become even more central to city planning as food security and food safety become issues that cities need to address along with the increase in population that is creating a strain on a global level with regards to food availability and health. In current practice, the term urban agriculture does not necessarily mean that food production itself is based on a sustainable methodology or procedure but when combined with an ecological-based approach it does. With the recognition of natural resource decline and the advance of environmental degradation in cities today, urban agriculture is taking on new meaning in bringing ecological-based systems back into the city as a vital part of the solution to creating more sustainable cities. This does require a paradigm shift in thinking about food as an integral part of the city's framework.
[Test 03 - 04번:어린아이가 할 수 없는 결정에 대한 처리]
There is a tendency in some parents to treat small children as if they are much older. It seems as if they want to give the impression that their child is mature beyond his age. They ask a small child to make decisions about matters he is too young to decide. When a child is put in this situation, sometimes he will do what the parent wants him to do, and sometimes he will simply say, "No." This is his attempt to show his authority and to display his power. A small child should never be asked to make a decision he is too young to make. The parent should make the decision and then give instructions to the child. For example, if a parent thinks that a child should stop playing and eat, he should not ask the child, "Do you want to eat now?" He should tell the child to put his toys away and get ready to eat. If he thinks that the child should take a nap, he should not ask the child, "Do you want to take a nap?" He should tell the child that it is time for his nap.
[Test 03 - 05번:신경 과학과 인문 과학의 만남]
I think of neuroscience and the human sciences as like two very small miners energetically tunnelling in from opposite sides of an immense Alp. Although neuroscientists on their side of the Alp do not listen much to sounds of digging from the humanists on the other side, some humanists, those concerned with the brain's role in the arts, listen very closely to what the neuroscientists on the other side are saying. We draw hopefully on a great many researchers. We hope for answers from them to the questions that bother us. The neuroscientists and we of the human sciences, even if we are divided into two groups, share the same hope. Although dwarfed by the mountain, we hope our diggings will meet in the middle of that huge Alp, and there we will discover this mysterious, magical treasure, Mind. We hope.
[Test 03 - 06번:타고난 음악적 재능에 대한 믿음]
Modern broadcast media may have contributed to the perpetuation of the innate talent account of musical performance ability. The discovery of an exceptional child performer ─ "the next Mozart" is a common label ― makes for a much better story than reporting how advanced musical learning has resulted from an unusually plentiful combination of environmental, educational, and economic factors. Beyond simple media sensationalism, however, the belief in talent offers other appealing effects. Giving the musically talented person the designation of specialness can turn the experience of a concert into a fantastic, even supernatural, happening. Plus, musicians themselves can benefit from the "gifted" label. Feeling special ― or even divinely blessed ― can contribute to musicians' self-esteem and motivation; consequently, many "talented" musicians feel an obligation to nurture their gift, which allows them to approach their musical activities with confidence and the expectation of success.
[Test 03 - 07번:휴대 전화가 재정의한 공간 개념]
Many have observed that people often use mobile phones in waiting areas. It is a way to kill time but it is also a way to create a space within what is often a weak or poorly defined space. Spaces at the edge of a dead zone for making mobile calls are also prime spots for making calls or sending texts. So, when people touch down at an airport or leave a tunnel after having been out of contact with a cell tower, they are more likely to make calls or send texts. The mobile phone can be used to share a space with someone at a distance, for example, people at a concert who call others so they can hear part (or all) of the concert. At the extreme, people may be so immersed in the interaction with others on a mobile phone, that they lose contact with those in the physical space they occupy. Sherry Turkle calls this alone together; others have used the term absent presence to characterize this behavior.
[Test 03 - 08번: W. E. B. DuBois]
W. E. B. DuBois (1868-1963), an African American sociologist, graduated from Fisk University in Tennessee and became the first African American to receive a doctorate from Harvard University. Then, at Atlanta University, he founded the nation's second department of sociology. He soon began a highly productive academic career that included, among many other things, founding two scholarly journals and writing numerous books and articles. He focused his research and writing on the racial problems in the United States. At the same time, however, he worked hard to apply his enormous knowledge to improving society. He founded the Niagara Movement, an organization of African American intellectuals fighting for racial equality. He also helped create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and edited its influential magazine, Crisis. Later, he even advocated the use of force to achieve racial equality. Finally, seeing little improvement in race relations, he moved in 1961 to the African nation of Ghana, where he died 2 years later.
[Test 03 - 09번:미국 영화계의 무대 뒤 주요 역할에 종사한 여성의 비율]
The charts above show the percentage of women who worked in major behind-the-scenes roles in the 250 highest-grossing U.S. films from 2015 to 2021 and the percentage of those women in 2021 by role. Compared to 2015, the percentage of women who worked in the 250 highest-grossing U.S. films was lower in 2016 and 2017, but it was higher in 2018. In 2021, the percentage of women who worked in the 250 highest-grossing U.S. films accounted for a quarter of the total. In the same year, the percentage of female executive producers in these films was lower than that of female producers. While the share of female directors and writers in the 250 highest-grossing U.S. films in 2021 stood at 17 percent each, 22 percent of all editors were female. In the same year, among the major behind-the-scenes roles, cinematographers had the lowest percentage of women, at less than a third of the percentage of women who worked as writers.
[Test 03 - 12번:고급품이라는 믿음의 심리적 영향]
We are so easily impressed and make judgements based on superficial evidence, but sometimes luxury provides a psychological boost to confidence that improves our well-being. Wearing designer clothes can make us feel better about ourselves, which then becomes self-reinforcing. When we put on our luxury clothes we feel special and behave accordingly. Luxury goods light up the pleasure centres in our brain. If you think you are drinking expensive wine, not only does it taste better but the brain's valuation system associated with the experience of pleasure shows greater activation, compared to drinking exactly the same wine when you believe it to be cheap. What's important here is the belief ─ not the actual luxury. Francesca Gino, a professor at Harvard Business School, found that people who wore what they believed to be fake designer brand sunglasses (but were in fact genuine) felt like frauds and were more likely to cheat on tests. You may be able to fake until you make it, but deep down, if we do, many of us feel like imposters.
[Test 03 - 13번:어류 남획으로 인해 파생되는 문제]
Overfishing is in large part a consequence of excessive effort and capacity in fisheries. Too often, fishery managers have been unable to control fishing effort, resulting in unsustainable levels of catch. This has been a particular problem for open-access fisheries where management does not limit the number of participants or high individual effort. In this situation, the economic incentives favor short-term exploitation over long-term sustainable use because the economic benefits of sacrificing current catch to rebuild the stock are hard to perceive compared to short-term needs (bills to be paid), and long-term benefits may have to be shared with newcomers when the fishery recovers. As more people enter the fishery or improve their fishing capabilities, the future yield to the individual fisher decreases. This often fosters competition to maintain or even increase individual catch levels even as stocks decline. In response, managers may shorten fishing seasons; participants then increase their fishing power, and effort becomes concentrated in time, sometimes resulting in "races for fish" or "fishing derbies."
[Test 03 - 14번:숙제의 의미]
Typically, homework consists of any assigned task slated to be done outside the hours of class. What the word homework does not describe is the quality or quantity of the task, a reality that makes homework discussions challenging because it turns into a war of vocabulary. For example, if two people discuss their children's homework, one could be railing against mindless worksheets while the other is in favor of carefully crafted activities prompting students to reflect or create. But instead of naming the specific activity, they both refer to the tasks simply as "homework." And so one parent wonders why on earth anyone would be a proponent of (mindless) homework while the other can't understand why a parent wouldn't want their child to do (relevant and creative) work at home. Neither parent understands the other's point of view because they aren't speaking the same language about homework.
[Test 03 - 15번:아프리카계 미국인 교외화의의도치 않은 결과]
American sociologist William Julius Wilson has argued that an unintended consequence of African American suburbanization has been that inner cities have lost valuable role models. As higher income minorities leave center cities, young people who remain are less likely to see and interact with adult men who work and have achieved upward income mobility. Research in development economics has documented, with data from the Dominican Republic, that when young people are informed about the wage gains that are possible by obtaining more education, this information increases their educational attainment. The explanation for this is that young people are more likely to underestimate the economic benefits of education when they never interact with people who look like them and have also attained a high level of education. The suburbanization of upwardly mobile people thus has social consequences for peer effects in the inner city.
[Test 03 - 16번:라디오의 소형화]
Because advertisers in the 1950s were interested in reaching baby boomers, many radio stations played music called rock 'n' roll with disc jockeys that specifically called out to them. Other stations targeted different age groups with different styles of music and DJs. This new sort of station that focused on particular music preferences caught on because radio was now more portable than ever. The development in 1948 of the transistor, a much smaller replacement for the Audion vacuum tube, led to the miniaturization of radio receivers. Now radio became something that people could literally take with them throughout the day ─ to the park, to the beach, or wherever. All of a sudden, the medium had a new life, and companies rushed to get new licenses. The number of stations jumped dramatically, from about one thousand in 1946 to nearly 3,500 in the mid-1950s. The largest proportion of these played specific types of music.
[Test 03 - 17번:친구 사귀기]
In a study by Arthur Aron and myself, we created a fake computer dating service, but instead of romance, the goal was to help college students find friendship. All the subjects listed their interests, and we returned a week later to ask them to review a profile written by another person and judge whether they liked and wanted to meet them. Half of them were told that our ultra-reliable, matchmaker program determined that this new person was an ideal match for them. The other half weren't told anything. When people weren't given any information about whether a friendship was likely, they preferred people with interests just like theirs. But when they were told that a friendship was likely, they preferred people who complemented them with different interests. That is, when people were confident that a relationship was possible, they wanted to spend time with people who were unique, interesting, and who offered a chance for them to expand their horizons.
[Test 03 - 18번:현재 현실을 조직하는 은유적 개념]
Many of our activities (arguing, solving problems, budgeting time, etc.) are metaphorical in nature. The metaphorical concepts that characterize those activities structure our present reality. New metaphors have the power to create a new reality. This can begin to happen when we start to comprehend our experience in terms of a metaphor, and it becomes a deeper reality when we begin to act in terms of it. If a new metaphor enters the conceptual system that we base our actions on, it will alter that conceptual system and the perceptions and actions that the system gives rise to. Much of cultural change arises from the introduction of new metaphorical concepts and the loss of old ones. For example, the Westernization of cultures throughout the world is partly a matter of introducing the time is money metaphor into those cultures.
[Test 03 - 19번:사냥을 통한 동물 피해 통제]
Animal damage control advocates often characterize game animals as pest species. Deer, for instance, do not kill farm animals but are blamed for destroying gardens, bringing disease, causing car accidents, and wreaking other forms of damage in suburbs. So sport hunters are allowed to kill deer with public support ─ after all, no one wants to be involved in a collision with a deer. Unfortunately for deer, hunting does not necessarily control their populations. They can rebound soon after hunting season due to lessened competition for resources. And, of course, the animal damage control measures that wiped out many of their natural predators also play a role in their large numbers. There are numerous methods to prevent the damage that deer can cause, such as more responsible driving, speed limits, warning signs, roadside reflectors, as well as the use of fencing along roadways. Yet the fact remains that as long as developers continue to build in suburban areas, humans and wildlife will come into contact. Sadly, animal damage control programs have just one way of solving these problems ─ hunting.
[Test 03 - 20번:적합성 향상과 유전자 빈도]
A gene can increase in frequency by making its bearers more likely than nonbearers to perform some fitness-enhancing behavior. For example, females of many species choose a mate based on the quality of male courtship displays. If the courtship displays of males differ in quality and a genetic difference underlies the display difference, the gene for the superior display will increase in frequency. Of course, courtship behaviors are not the only behaviors that affect fitness. If parents differ in the quantity of care they give to their offspring, if the quantity of care affects the viability of offspring, and if a genetic difference underlies this difference in parental care, then the gene for higher quantity care will increase in frequency. So, as long as a gene makes some fitness-enhancing behavior more likely, that gene will increase in frequency in a population, and as a result the behavior may increase in frequency as well. For this reason, biologists frequently say that, from the standpoint of evolutionary biology, "behavioral traits are like any other class of characters."
[Test 03 - 21번:이동성 증가와 문화 정체성 상실]
A mark of postmodernity is the increasing mobility, both voluntary and forced, of human populations around the world. The migration of whole societies, the problem of refugees, the incorporation of migrant workers, have created a global, multicultural society that challenges the ability of any nation to define a reasonably homogeneous cultural identity or a set of cultural norms. The case of the failure of America's "melting pot" image is a telling example. Although the United States has always been a nation of immigrants, it managed, at least until World War II, to maintain a sense of itself as a whole, a European-derived, English-speaking nation. But new migrations ― Asian, African, and Latino ─ have challenged this image and made it almost impossible to define a central cultural identity for the nation. Moreover, the American experience has become the norm in other parts of the world as well. People's identities have become fractured, pluralized, and hybridized, and populations that were silent and marginalized in the past have suddenly moved to the center of the historical and cultural stage.
[Test 03 - 22번:연안 해역에서의 인간의 영향]
Human impacts are the most direct in the upper 500 meters of the ocean as commercial fishing is not conducted in deeper waters. Indeed, geological extraction and construction of ports and windmill farms are typically conducted in waters of 50 meters depth or less. In shallow and nearshore waters human impacts are palpable, even in remote parts of the world. Animal life in Antarctic waters is abundant and has been protected from commercial use for decades, yet hunting in the early part of the twentieth century changed the ecosystem to a degree that it can no longer be considered a pristine ecosystem. This is not to say that there are not pristine-like nearshore waters left on Earth. A case may be made for the northwest Hawaii islands, which have never been inhabited by humans and only very rarely have experienced fishing expeditions. Such locations are few ─ in fact, probably less than 1% of the ocean surface is fully protected against fishing or other kinds of disturbing activities.
[Test 03 - 23번:새로운 신념과 그에 일치되는 기억]
In a simple experiment conducted by Michael Ross, Cathy McFarland, and Garth Fletcher, college students received a persuasive message arguing the importance of frequent tooth brushing. After receiving the message, they changed their attitudes toward tooth brushing. Needless to say, this is not surprising. But here's what was surprising: Later that same day in a different situation, the students were asked, "How many times have you brushed your teeth in the past 2 weeks?" Those who received the message recalled that they brushed their teeth far more frequently than did students in the control condition. The students were not attempting to deceive the researcher; there was no reason for them to lie. They were simply using their new attitudes as a heuristic to help them remember. In a sense, they needed to believe that they had always behaved in a sensible and reasonable manner ― even though they had just now discovered what that sensible behavior might be. [요약문] According to the experiment in the passage, the students' attitudes toward tooth brushing were influenced by a persuasive message for frequent tooth brushing, which caused them to revise their memories so that the memories could be consistent with their new beliefs.
[Test 03 - 24~25번:일반적인 믿음에 기대는 오류에 맞서는 과학]
When it comes to the common belief fallacy in your own life, remember that scientists are always trying to reach better conclusions, and that is something you don't do as an individual, at least not by default, and by extension it is something your institutions are not so great at either. You don't seek out what science calls the null hypothesis. That is, when you believe in something, you rarely seek out evidence to the contrary to see how it matches up with your assumptions. That's the source of urban legends, folklore, superstitions, and all the rest. Having doubts is not your strong suit. Corporations and other institutions rarely set aside a division tasked with paying attention to the faults of the agency. Unlike in science, most human undertakings leave out a special department devoted to looking for the worst in the operation ─ not just a complaint department, but a department that asks if the organization is on the right path. Every human effort should systematically pause and ask if it is currently mistaken. To beat your brain, you need that department constantly operating in your cranium. You would do well to borrow from the lessons of the scientific method and apply them in your personal life. In the background, while you sew and golf and browse cat videos, science is fighting against your stupidity. No other human enterprise is fighting as hard, or at least not fighting and winning.
[Test 03 - 26~28번: Madeleine의 수업을 받게 된Jill]
Jill was quite a sickly child, but she had always wanted to be like Madeleine Sharp, a famous dancer. One day Jill and her mom went to Miss Madeleine Sharp's class for young ladies in the ballroom of the Bell Hotel in Bromley. Madeleine Sharp was tall, slim, and powerful. There were eight other little girls, who all hung on Madeleine's every word and jumped to obey her instructions. Madeleine came over to Jill and said, "Right, let's see what Jill can do." Jill began with the classic first rule for all dancers: How to hold the bar. Madeleine Sharp said, "Never grip it, dear." Madeleine firmly continued to say to Jill, "Rest your hand lightly on it. It is there to steady you, not as a lifeline. Turn your feet out. This must not be feet only, but start in the hips so that your whole leg is turned out. Good." Madeleine Sharp wanted to explore her possibilities as a dancer. So she asked the pianist to play a lyrical piece of music and said, "Jill, dear, let me see you run and enjoy yourself and see what the music tells you to do." Jill didn't know it at the time, but Madeleine Sharp was highly regarded and entry to her classes was quite competitive as a result. So Jill's mom was extremely nervous while her daughter was dancing, especially as some of the other mothers stayed there to see how this new child was going to do. Jill got carried away with the music and flew around the room. After a minute or so Madeleine clapped her hands and Jill stopped in front of her, panting and looking up at her, full of hope. Madeleine put her arm round Jill, returned to Jill's mom and said, "I'd like to teach Jill very much. Can you come again on Friday?" They exchanged a few more words but Jill didn't hear a thing. Jill's head was too alive with the events of the afternoon and the thrilling new world before her. She was barely conscious of her mom saying, "Hurry up, darling. Let's get home and tell your dad!" But as her voice woke Jill up, Jill put her arms round her mom.
1) 빈칸이나 순서 등의 문제에 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 감안해서 이용하세요. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정할게요.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 공지 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다.
1) 빈칸이나 순서 등의 문제에 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 감안해서 이용하세요. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정할게요.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 공지 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다.
1) 빈칸이나 순서 등의 문제에 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 감안해서 이용하세요. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정할게요.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 공지 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다.
1) 빈칸이나 순서 등의 문제에 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 감안해서 이용하세요. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정할게요.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 공지 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다.
1) 빈칸이나 순서 등의 문제에 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 감안해서 이용하세요. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정할게요.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 공지 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다.
수업 중인 학생의 중간고사 범위가 Unit 3~5으로 정해져서, 일단 해당 범위부터 시작하겠습니다. PDF 파일만 올릴 예정이고, 파일 하나당 문제는 대략 70~80문제 수준입니다. 그리고 각 유닛 당 3개까지 파일을 제작하려고 합니다.
다음 몇 가지 사항 참고해 주세요. 1) 빈칸이나 순서 등과 같은 문제는 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 특히 서술형이 그렇습니다. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글에 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정해서 다시 올려놓겠습니다.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 Notice 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다. 양해 부탁드립니다.
수업 중인 학생의 중간고사 범위가 Unit 3~5으로 정해져서, 일단 해당 범위부터 시작하겠습니다. PDF 파일만 올릴 예정이고, 파일 하나당 문제는 대략 70~80문제 수준입니다. 그리고 각 유닛 당 3개까지 파일을 제작하려고 합니다.
다음 몇 가지 사항 참고해 주세요. 1) 빈칸이나 순서 등과 같은 문제는 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 특히 서술형이 그렇습니다. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글에 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정해서 다시 올려놓겠습니다.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 Notice 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다. 양해 부탁드립니다.
수업 중인 학생의 중간고사 범위가 Unit 3~5으로 정해져서, 일단 해당 범위부터 시작하겠습니다. PDF 파일만 올릴 예정이고, 파일 하나당 문제는 대략 70~80문제 수준입니다. 그리고 각 유닛 당 3개까지 파일을 제작하려고 합니다.
다음 몇 가지 사항 참고해 주세요. 1) 빈칸이나 순서 등과 같은 문제는 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 특히 서술형이 그렇습니다. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글에 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정해서 다시 올려놓겠습니다.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 Notice 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다. 양해 부탁드립니다.
수업 중인 학생의 중간고사 범위가 Unit 3~5으로 정해져서, 일단 해당 범위부터 시작하겠습니다. PDF 파일만 올릴 예정이고, 파일 하나당 문제는 대략 70~80문제 수준입니다. 그리고 각 유닛 당 3개까지 파일을 제작하려고 합니다.
다음 몇 가지 사항 참고해 주세요. 1) 빈칸이나 순서 등과 같은 문제는 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 특히 서술형이 그렇습니다. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글에 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정해서 다시 올려놓겠습니다.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 Notice 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다. 양해 부탁드립니다.
수업 중인 학생의 중간고사 범위가 Unit 3~5으로 정해져서, 일단 해당 범위부터 시작하겠습니다. PDF 파일만 올릴 예정이고, 파일 하나당 문제는 대략 70~80문제 수준입니다. 그리고 각 유닛 당 3개까지 파일을 제작하려고 합니다.
다음 몇 가지 사항 참고해 주세요. 1) 빈칸이나 순서 등과 같은 문제는 중복이 있을 수 있습니다. (학교마다 비슷한 문제가 출제될 수 있음) 2) 정답이 대체로 맞지만, 오답이 있을 수 있습니다. 특히 서술형이 그렇습니다. (오답이 있는 경우 댓글에 남겨주시면, 확인 후 수정해서 다시 올려놓겠습니다.) 3) 다양한 이유로 기출모음 자료는 별다른 Notice 없이 내려갈 수 있습니다. 양해 부탁드립니다.
